U212_Tma_01

U212: – understanding childhood chapter 1. Chapter 1: ‘What is a child'’ takes the issue of when childhood ends in order to explore the complex nature of childhood. Immediately the problems inherent in defining childhood as a stage of life become apparent. There are no universally agreed criteria for deciding when someone has reached the moment when she or he stops being a child and becomes an adult – in fact contradictions abound in different areas of social practice. Children of the same age may be treated as competent and responsible in one area of life but immature and dependent in another. This chapter explores how the three approaches of social constructionism, science and the law deal with the end of childhood. The chapter focuses on one particular debate, about the age of criminal responsibility, illustrating how studies within scientific, social constructionist and applied approaches can shed light on how children who commit serious crimes are treated, so revealing complex and sometimes contradictory issues. • Video 1, Band 1 – Children on childhood. • Video 1, Band 2 – Brian and Karen. • Audio 1, Band 1 – Perspectives on case study locations. Section 1 – Introduction: • The United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child (UNCRC) state a child is someone under the age of eighteen. • Childhood is not simply defined by the bodily maturity of being a young human. It is also marked by the way children are dressed, by the way they are treated, and by social and cultural norms about what they should and should not do. • Concepts of what a child is vary from culture to culture and from one historical time to another. Some definitions relate to children’s biological immaturity, some definitions are constituted in laws, but others are more socially and culturally constituted. • Childhood can also be studied from different points of view. This chapter explores three major viewpoints or approaches: scientific, social constructionist and applied. Section 2 – A Scientific Approach: • Science seeks to establish objective facts by using rigorous methods of research and testing. • A scientific approach to the study of child development typically consists of three main activities: • Devising a theory or theories to explain aspects of child development; • Making predictions from the theory or theories; • Testing those predictions, through experiments, observations and surveys. • Jean Piaget {1932} used scientific methods for testing his theory of child development. He hypothesized that children do not gradually get better in their thinking capacities, but rather go through a systematic progression of 4 distinct stages. Using observation and experiments, Piaget produced data to test his theory. • Liquids task – water quantity perception. • Three mountains task – perception of what others can see. • These experiments were conducted to answer the question ‘when does a child gain the capacity to see things from the perspective of another person'’ • Piaget’s stages of cognitive development: • Sensori-motor (0-2); • Pre-Operational (2-6); • Concrete Operational (6-12); • Formed Operational (12 + over). • Kohlberg {1967} used the basis of Piaget to develop his stage-theory of moral development by asking children to respond to moral dilemmas. On the basis of their answers, he constructed a 6 stage theory of moral development through which children pass in their maturation from a child’s way of thinking to adult levels of competence. • The data obtained from these studies can be used to address practical question such as the ages and stages at which children acquire an understanding of ‘right’ and ‘wrong’. • Kohlberg’s stages of moral development: • Pre conventional level: ▪ Punishment and obedience – wrong things are those you are punished for, so you obey rules to avoid punishment. ▪ Hedonism – good and bad are to do with satisfying your own needs, you do what’s best for you. • Conventional level: ▪ Interpersonal concordance – being good is about being loyal and looking after the interest of those you care about and those who reciprocate. ▪ Law and order – being good is about obeying the law and rules, which may be statutory or religious. • Principled level: ▪ Social contract – being good is about caring about the welfare and wellbeing of others. ▪ Universal ethical principles – being good is defined by your own conscience, in accordance with self-determined principles. Section 3 – A Social Constructionist Approach: • Social constructionism draws attention to influences of culture, history and social processes on the way people make sense of the world and, in consequence, the way they act. • The concepts of a ‘child’ and ‘childhood’ are socially constructed – they exist only because people have brought them into being as meaningful categories. • Social constructionism is not just about there being different ‘realities’ created by the way people think and make sense of children, for example. It is concerned with the practical and moral consequences of these alternative ‘realities’ – what they allow and encourage people to do, and what they cover up from view and prevent people doing. • Social constructionism challenges the assumption that things like moral values can be objectively defined and measured. • Using a social constructionist approach allows people to recognize that children who commit serious crimes like murder can be seen through two different discourses. o The Romantic discourse of childhood sees children as inherently good, doing terrible things only if they have been damaged in some way. Consequently, child murderers should be treated by therapy. o The Puritan discourse of childhood sees children as inherently evil and amoral. If they do terrible things, this is because of their innate wickedness and they should be punished. • Social constructionism criticises the Scientific approach: o No form of scientific knowledge can totally be without construction. Understanding anything is a product of the ‘beholders’ constructions, an interpretation. Therefore, it cautions against the assumption of universal facts as final and correct, arguing that different influences on a child’s life have to be taken into account. o Carole Gilligan {1982} criticised Kohlberg, arguing that he only used males in his study and if females had been used his stages of moral development results could have been entirely different. o Edward Said {1994} argues that science believes its own knowledge is superior over other knowledge, and is the final voice on the subject. o Ethnocentric – assuming Western ways and ideas are superior. Section 4 – An Applied Approach: • An applied approach can draw on both scientific and social constructionist approaches when applying theory and research to social policy and practice and the law. • A scientific approach – particularly that provided by developmental theory and research – has produced information about children’s capacities at different stages in their maturation. This information has been used for example to inform policy about ways in which children who commit crimes can be reformed. • A social constructionist approach – provides insight into why there is so much controversy about what to do with children who commit serious crimes. Identifying the historical, social and cultural roots of two antagonistic models of treatment – the welfare model and the justice model – helps us to make sense of current moves to change systems of juvenile justice. o The Welfare Model is based on the Romantic discourse of childhood and sees children as inherently good, doing terrible things only if they have been damaged in some way. Consequently, child murderers should be treated by therapy. o The Justice Model is based on the Puritan discourse of childhood and sees children as inherently evil and amoral. If they do terrible things, this is because of their innate wickedness and they should be punished. At the end of your study of chapter 1 you should be able to: ✓ Recognise that there are many different ways of answering the question, ‘What is a child’; ✓ Describe the basic features of and the main differences between a scientific approach, a social constructionist approach and an applied approach to the study of children and childhood; ✓ Describe the basic elements of Piaget’s theory of cognitive development and Kohlberg’s theory of moral development; ✓ Briefly explain two criticisms of Kohlberg’s theory; ✓ Outline scientific and social constructionist approaches to considering how to treat children who commit crimes. At the end of your study of this chapter you should be able to answer examination questions such as these: 1. What is a child' Discuss how a scientific, a social constructionist and an applied approach attempt to answer this question. (TMA01 Option 1, 2004). 2. Explain the differences between a scientific and a social constructionist approach to the question ‘When does childhood end'’ (TMA01 Option 1, 2005). 3. Should young criminals be held responsible for their actions' Discuss different approaches to answering this question based on your study of Book 1, Chapter 1. (TMA01 Option 2, 2004). 4. Explain how scientific, social constructionist and applied approaches to the study of childhood can each help understand reactions to the two young killers of James Bulger. (TMA01 Option 1, 2006). 5. Explain how a scientific, a social constructionist and an applied approach can shed light on different views about children’s knowledge of right and wrong. (TMA01 Option 1, 2007). ----------------------- c