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To what extent do children’s everyday lives challenge the construction of childhood as a time of innocence' This essay will explore the extent to which children’s everyday lives challenge the construction of childhood as a time of innocence. It will draw upon visual and audio representation of childhood along with social and cultural beliefs. The theme of innocence in relation to childhood can be viewed through three approaches; scientific, social constructionist and applied however innocence itself is difficult to define. By focusing on a social constructionist approach, childhood innocence can be viewed through the three main discourses; puritan, romantic and tabula rasa. The puritan discourse sees childhood as a time of evil and wildness. Hobbes believed that children were born unruly and anarchistic whereas Rousseau of the Romantic discourse believed that children were inherently good but corrupted by society. The philosopher Locke felt that all children were born as tabula rasa, a blank slate and it was their upbringing that shaped them. (Montgomery 2003 p 62-67) The main body of this essay will explore the term of innocence in relation to child sexuality and child crime as well as the representation of childhood innocence in the media. Warner (1994) revealed the many connotations surrounding innocence and how it is represented in six different areas; the innocence (romantic), blank slates (tabula rasa), psychoanalytical and child as a separate state from adults. She felt children’s innocence was being lost in the modern world partly through positioning them to be consumers. Throughout history childhood innocence has been questioned - the poems Infant Joy and Infant Sorrow (Blake 1789-93) give an example of childhood and innocence. Mayhew (Watercress girl, 1861) is shocked that the girl of 8 has ‘lost all childish ways’. The circumstances he finds her in and the information gained from their conversation does not fit with his ideal of childhood. Her innocence has been lost through work, hardship and experience of the adult world (Montgomery, 2003, p228). Like Locke’s tabula rasa discourse the events in her life have shaped who she is. Modern representations of children exploit the perceived innocence of childhood, as seen in advertising campaigns by Evian, Peugeot and Gap (Video 1 Band 3). Evian shows white, chubby western babies representing innocence and purity. The Peugeot advert is probably the strongest representation of innocence in which a vulnerable young girl is saved and protected by the adult male hero from a truck. The romantic discourse is strong in adverts which are very purposefully constructed to highlight the innocence, vulnerability and purity of childhood. The use of childhood images can also be used to shock. The Barnardos campaign ‘giving children back their future’ portrayed children in harmful not innocent situations. A baby injecting heroin and a young girl working as a prostitute were alarming and went against the western image of childhood innocence. The campaign wanted us to realise that an unprotected childhood can rob children of their innocence and lead to a damaged adult life. These adverts also highlight how important a child’s age is when examining innocence. The UNCRC states that childhood is from 0-18 (Stainton Rodgers 2003). However would a teenage boy of 17 being rescued in the Peugeot advert be as dramatic as a young girl' Likewise in the Barnardos campaign an 18 year old injecting drugs would be seen as their life choice. The Evian advert would not necessarily have the viewer thinking of purity if it were 13 year olds splashing around' If an older child was used the impact would have not been there. By using much younger children in the Barnardos and Peugeots advert, it is easier to believe in their innocence and need for protection so the campaign is more effective. It highlights how much a western view can link a child’s innocence to their age, the younger a child the more there is a need to protect and shelter them from harm. Age and gender are factors that play a large part in how innocence is seen in respect of child sexuality and child crime. The western opinion is that sexuality is inherent and driven by instincts parallel with the animal world and open discussion around sexuality is still a taboo subject (Kehily, Mongomery p236 2003). The social constructionist approach looks at the cultural and social aspects that affect a child’s life. The western view of childhood innocence would find it difficult to understand other culture’s approach to sexuality around children. Some cultures actively encourage children to have sexual experiences. Within the Canela community in Brazil it is desirable for a girl of age 9 or 10 to have had multiple sexual partners before her marriage at the age of 11 (Kehily, Mongomery p236 2003). As to whether this is with people of similar age or due to short life expectancy it is not clear. In contrast for societies in the Middle East the honour of the men is dependent on their ability to control the sexual behaviour of their daughters, sisters and wives (Peristiany, 1966). These examples show innocence is hard to define; cultures are shaping their children’s experiences and therefore have their own views on innocence and what they class as ‘normal’ the western world could see as child abuse. Similarly if the age of a child is 0-18 and an adult’s role is that of protector of their innocence around such issues as sexuality, for fear of abuse, why is the age of consent so varied from culture to culture' The age of consent is 16 in the UK, 12 in Holland and 20 in China (Kehily, Mongomery p236 2003). Freud (1856-1939) argued that all children are inherently sexual and it is not suddenly at puberty that this is realised by the child. Freud believed sexuality was biological and not a social construct. In fact it was the social constructs that suppressed it (Kehily, Mongomery p246 2003). Freud was, however, criticised for his assumptions that children do these things for sexual pleasure. The question was asked; did a child even know what a sexual pleasure was and the sexual meaning to the act' The thought that a young child is aware of these feelings as being sexual questions the age of innocence and does not fit within our ideas of childhood innocence. Societies are constructing their own beliefs and values about sexuality and shaping how these experiences will affect a child, similar to Locke’s belief that a child is born a blank slate (tabula rasa). The concept of innocence would imply that children are sexually ignorant and need protecting however as noted by both the writings of White (1986) and Kempadoo (1998) children are curious and despite knowing that what they are doing would be frowned upon by adults, their curiosity or urges take over. Foucault (1926-84) argued that attempts to suppress or control sexuality have had the opposite effect and child sexuality has never been so scrutinised as in modern times. Gender also plays a part in the question of childhood innocence. Holland (1992) speaks of the eroticization of girls and how they can be portrayed in western society as desirable because of their innocence and ignorance of their own sexuality. Innocence is dependent on how adults view them and assume because of age and gender they are innocent and unknowing of what is sexual and this in its self is provocative. The film American Beauty (Video1 Band3) depicts this eroticization. Lester Burnham fantasises over the young girl Angela, but her apparent sexualised behaviour and his fantasies are derailed when she confesses that she is a virgin. Despite her sexualised behaviour she is still a vulnerable and innocent child. The fact that we even have terminology such as ‘Jail bait’ and Lolita for young girls who are perceived as sexually aware is telling of how the western world can sexualise pubescent girls and deprive them of their innocence (Kehily, Mongomery p236 2003). The video Painted Babies (Video1 Band7) is another example of how innocence is perceived by the individual and asks whether children are aware of sexualised behaviour. To some people the parading of young girls in such an adult way with heavy makeup and at times provocative dresses and dances could be seen as sexualising children and robbing them of their innocence. However are children really aware of this or is it an act to them, playing an innocent game of dress up to please parents and crowds' As one young girl said ‘it’s about the money, money, money’ (Video 1 Band 7) The essay will now go on to explore innocence in relation to child crime by using the three discourses; Romantic, Puritan and Tabula Rasa (Montgomery 2003 p 62-67) focusing on the response by two societies in relation to crimes committed by children. The media plays a role in influencing society’s beliefs of what is innocent and what isn’t. Reporting on child crime can raise the profile of a child to what some might say is celebrity status and certainly notoriety amongst their family and peers. The innocence of a child involved in crime despite the age is not protected by the media but demonised. The tabula rasa discourse would ask what has happened to these children for them to have lost their innocence. The Jamie Bulger case to some extent disregarded the childhood innocence and vulnerability as despite being children of 10 the perpetrators were tried in an adult court. The media again were quick to vilify supporting the puritan discourse that all children were inherently evil and had the devil in them (Montgomery 2003 p 62). However Morrison (1998) writes that the boys were in some ways innocent and they had no real awareness of their actions and consequences. He argues for the Romantic discourse in that all children are innocent because they do not know the difference between right and wrong. In stark contrast the Trondheim case was dealt with predominantly by the welfare state. The boys aged 6 were not tried in court, they were seen as children and therefore innocent and not aware of what they had done. Their community was aided by professionals to help understand the events and the boys were supported full-time and quickly reintegrated back into society returning to their homes and schools (Audio 2 Band5) When considering childhood innocence it is clear that it is a social construct dependant on social and cultural beliefs. The western view is not universally shared and as stated different cultural beliefs and customs would be seen as abuse in the western world. How innocence is viewed in western culture is largely dependent on age, gender and the media hype that surrounds it. Sexualised innocence tends to focus on girls and how they should be protected from sexualised behaviour but this is challenged by the eroticized child. Criminal innocence (mainly linked to boy’s) looks at innocence (Romantic) versus guilt (puritan). A child according to law should be protected but a child that is actively involved in crime questions our social beliefs of childhood innocence. The treatment of these children and their lost innocence does not sit comfortably within our western values and it is further complicated with age and gender; a 3 year old is viewed as naive; a 15 year old as knowing. Warner (1994) findings showed how complex a clear definition is when there are so many views linked to childhood and innocence. In society popular culture, whether paintings, poems or modern day advertising and journalism affects our view of childhood innocence and consequently the innocence of children. Advertisers wish to exaggerate the innocence of childhood and draw strongly on the romantic discourse, whilst journalism can vilify child crime and dismisses any innocence. Locke’s tabula rasa supports childhood innocence in as far as it believes children are products of their experiences. If they are exposed to a life that involves criminal or sexualised behaviour can they be blamed when it is the adults that should be protecting them and shaping their lives' Word count 1979 Reference • Block 1 Study Guide and Audio-visual notes, Unit 6 • Kehily, M, J. And Montgomery, H. (2003) ‘Innocence and Experience’ in Woodhead, M. and Montgomery, H. (eds.) Understanding Childhood , Chichester: John Wiley and Sons Ltd. in association with the Open University, pp. 221-265 • The Open University (2003) U212, Childhood, Video 1 Band 3 ‘Representations of childhood’ Milton Keynes: The Open University • The Open University (2003) U212, Childhood, Video 1, Band 7 ‘Painted babies’ Milton Keynes: The Open University • The Open University (2003) U212, Childhood, Audio 2, Band 5 ‘Children and criminal responsibility’ Milton Keynes: The Open University.