Three_Theories_Regarding_Development_of_a_Child

THREE THEORIES 1 Three Theories Regarding Development of a Child George Jettson PSY104: Child and Adolescent Development Instructor: Janet Stebbins July 8’th, 2013 2 Three Theories Regarding Development of a Child A child’s development is a mysterious, and yet, familiar entity. Throughout the last couple centuries, there have been many theories and documented findings regarding the development of a child from conception, to adulthood, and beyond. These findings and supporting research are necessary in order to better understand the thought process that dictate how a person learns, behaves. Sigmund Freud is widely regarded as one of the groundbreaking pioneers in the field of child development. His work on psychoanalytic development has laid many of the foundations for future research that has revolutionized modern medicine. Erik Erikson’s psychosocial development and Ivan Pavlov’s, B.F. Skinner and John Watson’s learning theory have furthered our understanding of the complex field of Psychology and have revolutionized modern medicine. In each of these theories, there is a clear explanation as to the traits that influence a person’s development. The goal of this paper is to examine these three development theories and then compare and contrast their merits and impact modern practice regarding child development from the prenatal stages through adolescence. 2 1 1. A child’s For APA format indent the first sentence of each new paragraph 5-7 spaces. [Janet Stebbins] 2. The goal of this paper is to examine... Strong thesis statement. [Janet Stebbins] Psychoanalytic Perspective “Sigmund Freud constructed his psychoanalytic theory in the early part of the 1900s. He developed his ideas mostly from his therapeutic sessions with adults, many of who complained of various psychosomatic disorders. Freud theorized that his patients exhibited physical symptoms due to unconscious processes related to childhood conflicts. He believed that our most basic instinct is to derive pleasure by giving in to our innate aggressive and sexual impulses.” (Mossler, 2011) Freud believed that a person’s personality is based on three components: the id, ego, and superego. Freud theorized that the id is the cornerstone of the personality. The id is a subconscious part of the personality that seeks out pleasure. While the id is the cornerstone of the personality, the ego is necessary “to satisfy the demands 3 3. “Sigmund Freud constructed his... Christopher, Rather than rewriting information from your references as a direct quote, it is better to summarize the information in your own words and then include an in-text citation. In this way, you demonstrate that you understand the concepts and can summarize the information in your own words and apply the concepts. [Janet Stebbins] -2- THREE THEORIES 3 of the id and to have realistic plans for what the id wants.” (Mossler, 2011) The third and final part of the personality is the superego. The superego makes up what we know as a sense of morality and is composed of two parts: the conscience, and the ego ideal. The conscience is what determines a person’s view or right or wrong, good or bad. The ego ideal is the set of goals and aspirations that one has. Together, these parts make up one’s personality. However, the personality must be developed through a set of psychosexual stages. (Mossler, 2011) These five pleasure-seeking stages are oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital. Stage one is the oral stage. This is the first stage that an infant will accomplish. The pleasure that it seeks deals with experiencing pleasure by putting things in its mouth. “Obesity, alcoholism, smoking, and even drug abuse are blamed by Freudian theorists on oral fixations.” (A. Ellis, M. Abrams, L. Abrams, 2008) The second stage is the anal stage. As the child begins to learn how to use the bathroom on its own terms, the child will develop guidelines for discipline and authority. Hoarding, sloppiness, emotional disorganization and defiance are some examples of behavior associated with anal fixations. (A. Ellis, M. Abrams, L. Abrams, 2008) The third stage is the phallic stage. This stage occurs when the child is between 3-6 years old. In this stage, the child derives its pleasure from its genitals and begins to understand its gender identity. Homosexuality and lesbianism are considered to be associated with phallic fixations. (A. Ellis, M. Abrams, L. Abrams, 2008) The fourth stage is the latency stage. When the child reaches the age of six to twelve years old, it begins to repress sexual urges and focuses on social and intellectual skills. The fifth and final stage is the genital stage. In this stage, the child becomes an adolescent and will put their sexual desires aside in order to focus on others. Freud theorized that a person’s psychological issues stemmed from inappropriate interactions during these stages and that sexually matured adults are the [no notes on this page] -3- 4 result of having the appropriate balance of gratification. (Mossler, 2011) (A. Ellis, M. Abrams, L. Abrams, 2008) (P. Cotti, 2011) Psychosocial Development Erik Erikson built his theory of Psychosocial Development using Freud’s psychoanalytic perspective as a base to work from. However, Erikson’s theory focuses more on the importance of self in society. He went on to explain that there are eight stages to one’s development. The first stage to psychosocial development is trust versus mistrust. In this stage, a child learns to trust its parents, and the environment that it is being raised. If the environment fails the child, then feelings of mistrust will develop. (Mossler, 2011) The second stage is autonomy versus shame and doubt. As the child grows out of infancy, its parents should start providing options to the child where a decision has to be made. An example of one of these options would be eating either peas or carrots for dinner. By being faced with the need to make a decision such as this, the child will then begin to self-sufficient, or autonomous. The reverse can also happen. If the parents do not allow situations where the child can make decisions, the child may develop a sense of shame or doubt do to a “perceived lack of competence.” (Mossler, 2011) The third stage is initiative versus guilt. After a young child begins to be faced with decisions, it begins wanting to make more and more decisions. About three to six years old, the child’s parents must be careful to respond correctly to the choices that the child makes. For instance, if the child makes the decision to make breakfast in bed for mommy, but ends up turning the kitchen into a mess, the parents are forces to either reinforce the child’s decision because the child took initiative, or they might make the child feel guilty for making a mess. (Mossler, 2011) The fourth stage is industry versus inferiority. This stage occurs when the child is between seven to eleven years old. By this time, the parents have reinforced the child’s initiative enough to the point where 1 1. Erik Indent 5-7 spaces. [Janet Stebbins] -4- THREE THEORIES 5 the child becomes so productive in making the choices, that the child is quite industrious when left alone. This initiative helps to build the child’s self-esteem. However, the reverse can also happen. If the child fails, or is shown up by a peer, feelings of inferiority may develop. (Mossler, 2011) The fifth stage of identity versus role confusion occurs when the child enters adolescence. During this stage, the knowledge and development from the four previous stages play an important role in the adolescence’s development. The teenager begins to experiment with adult behaviors as they undergo many physical, cognitive, and sexual changes. They begin to contemplate their future roles, as their personality develops. However, they will not necessarily reach an understanding of their current and future roles at this time. Stage six of Erikson’s psychosocial theory is of intimacy versus isolation. In this stage, the young adult (ages twenty to forty) begins to develop intimate and personal relationships. Additionally, they may seek to isolate others that are harmful to the direction that they are going. (Mossler, 2011) Stage seven enters the picture when the individual is between forty years old until sixty-five. This stage is generativity versus stagnation. During this stage, the adult seeks to feel fulfilled, and to not stagnate in either a personal or professional life. The adult will seek out ways to better their family and surroundings. Unfortunately, this is also when the mid-life crisis happens. As the adult realizes that they are aging, and are not participating in the behaviors that they used to, they may begin to feel like their life is not going anywhere. In an effort to combat these feelings, the adult may seek out risky behavior like skydiving, or may buy a sports car in an attempt to relive or reignite their youthfulness. (Mossler, 2011) Stage eight, Erikson’s final psychosocial stage, is integrity versus despair. During this period(age sixtyfive until death), the adult begins to reflect on the life that they have lived. If the adult feels that they have lived an acceptable and fulfilling life, they begin to understand the wisdom that they have gained. However, if the adult feels that they have wasted their life and have ultimately failed, they begin to enter disparity. (Mossler, 2011) (Dunkel, 2009) (Grayson, All, 2008) 1 1. (Mossler, 2011) (Dunkel, 2009)... Need APA format on the intext citation here. [Janet Stebbins] -5- 6 Learning Perspective The learning perspective theory pertains to human behaviors and ways that these behaviors are learned or triggered. This theory is largely based on the work of Ivan Pavlov’s and John Watson’s classical conditioning, and B.F. Skinner’s operant conditioning. “While studying the salivary response of his laboratory dogs,” Pavlov “observed them salivating to various objects and conditions that were associated with food, but where food was not yet presented.” (Mossler, 2011) Pavlov then was able to train these dogs to salivate to other objects or conditions that were not previously related to food. His ability to condition a response from a conditioned stimulus was groundbreaking, but the real breakthrough did not occur until John Watson demonstrated that the same kind of conditioning also occurred in humans by performing the Little Albert experiments. Watson was able to demonstrate that a child was not afraid of furry animals, but then as soon as a furry animal appeared, he would bang a heavy metal bar behind the child’s head. This would make a loud and annoying noise that the child did not like. Soon, the child began to associate the furry animals with the loud noise and began to grow afraid of the animals whenever they appeared regardless if there was any noise presented with the animals. In a similar fashion, B.F. Skinner was able to effectively document that conditioning can happen among humans by either reinforcing or ignoring a particular behavior. For instance, when a toddler falls down and isn’t seriously hurt, if the parents ignore that it happened, the child likely cry only a short while. The child can then be trained to not cry at all if it is just startled by the fall. On the other hand, if the parents rush to the child’s aid every time it falls down, the child will cry for long periods every time it falls. The attention that it receives from falling down is the reward for falling down. Conditioning doesn’t necessarily occur based on a therapist intervention. On the contrary, the environment in which a child lives can be the conditioning factor. There are many fears that a child may have such as a fear of clowns, spiders or other objects. However, there may be situations that were so traumatic for the child that they cause 1 1. The learning perspective theory... Excellent! [Janet Stebbins] -6- THREE THEORIES psychological issues. For instance, rape, or an auto accident may create a situation with much psychological damage. Most of these cases would be examples of Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder. Thus, the environment that a child grows up in will condition their responses to various situations. (Mossler, 2011) (A. Mahan, K. Ressler, 2013) (Brandon, All, 1991) 7 Use of Theories in Modern-Day Mental Health Treatment Since the conception of these theories, they have had each worked their way into the treatment of children that have appeared to struggle with various mental issues. Sigmund Freud ‘s work has paved the way for much of these, and even today, treatments that he developed are in use. When a child receives psychoanalytic psychotherapy, the therapist plays the part of a “blank slate” and allows the child to speak freely over the course of several stages. The first stage involves establishing the “therapeutic alliance” with the patient. The second stage analyzes the unconscious resistance of the child to the psychotherapy. The third phase is where the therapist observes the conscious or unconscious transferring of emotional feelings from a significant, and often traumatic, period of their life to the therapist. The later stages in psychoanalytic psychotherapy involve “the meanings of dreams, parapraxes, resistance, and transference reactions are among the topics.” (A. Ellis, M. Abrams, L. Abrams, 2008) Similar to psychoanalytic psychotherapy, psychosocial psychotherapy, involves many of the same practices of “talk therapy”. However, the focus of a psychosocial therapy is to help the child understand why they are thinking or acting the way that they are. When they understand why they are behaving in this way, the child will have more control over their behavior. (G. Holmbeck, All 2008) In stark contrast to these methods, the Learning Perspective focuses on using reinforcement or punishment on particular behaviors in order to guide or direct the behavior. [no notes on this page] -7- 8 Comparison of the Three Theories While all three developmental theories focus on verbal communication, all three focus on different aspects of the psyche. The psychoanalytic theory focuses on the child’s desire for sexual gratification. However, the psychosocial theory focuses on dilemmas that the child must conquer. While both the psychosocial theory and learning theory go much further in depth at the environment that a child is raised than the psychoanalytic theory, the learning theory seeks to alter the behavior with either reward, or punishment. Instead of physical guidance, the psychosocial theory seeks to help the individual identify why they are thinking or behaving in the way that they are. The psychoanalytic and psychosocial theories both have different steps in which to an individual must conquer, however, the psychoanalytic steps must be accomplished in that particular order. The psychosocial stages address specific dilemmas that must be learned throughout the life of the individual. (Mossler, 2011) Conclusion In conclusion, we have discussed several theories regarding development from the prenatal stages through adolescence and beyond. After covering Sigmund Freud’s Psychoanalytic Perspective, Erik Erikson’s Psychosocial Development, and Ivan Pavlov’s, B.F. Skinner and John Watson’s Learning Perspective, we then discussed the similarities and differences of these theories. By better understanding these theories, we have bolstered our knowledge of a child’s development. This will aid us in bettering our communities and us with gained awareness into the world of child development. [no notes on this page] -8- THREE THEORIES 1 References Brandon /Bombace / Falls / Wagner Modulation of unconditioned defensive reflexes by a putative emotive Pavlovian conditioned stimulus. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Process, Vol17(3) (Jul 1991) Retrieved from Research Library (ISSN 0033-2909) Cotti (March 2011) Sexuality and psychoanalytic aggrandisement: Freud’s 1908 theory of cultural history. History of Psychiatry, March 2011; vol. 22, 1: pp. 58-74. Retrieved from Research Library (DOI: 10.1177/0957154X10380015) Dunkel Eriksonian lifespan theory and life history theory: An integration using the example of identity formation. Review of General Psychology, Vol 13(1) (Mar, 2009) Retrieved from Research Library (ISSN 1089-2680) A. Ellis, M. Abrams, L. Abrams (2008)Personality Theories: Critical Perspectives Retrieved from: http://www.sagepub.com/upm-data/23240_Chapter_5.pdf Grayson N. Holmbeck, Azure Welborn Thill, Pamela Bachanas, Judy Garber, Karen Bearman Miller, Mona Abad, Elizabeth Franks Bruno, Jocelyn Smith Carter, Corinne David-Ferdon, Barbara Jandasek, Jean E. Mennuti-Washburn, Kerry O’Mahar, Jill Zukerman (2008) Evidence-based Assessment in Pediatric Psychology: Measures of Psychosocial Adjustment and Psychopathology. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, October 2008 33(9): 958-980 Retrieved from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2543094/ Amy L. Mahan, Kerry J. Ressler (January 2013) Fear Conditioning, Synaptic Plasticity, and the Amygdala: Implications for Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Trends in Neurosciences January 2013 Retrieved from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3206195/ Mossler, R.A. (2011). Child and adolescent development. Bridgepoint Education, Inc Retrieved from: https://content.ashford.edu/books/AUPSY104.11.2/sections/frontmatter 9 1. References For APA format, list references in alphabetical order according to author's last name, double space, and use hanging indentation. [Janet Stebbins] -9-