The_Scientific_Revolution__Francis_Bacon’S_Contribution

The Scientific Revolution & Francis Bacon’s Contribution Michelle L. Rice History 142 Section 6380 Michael Kopanic, Ph.D. April 18, 2010 What is the Scientific Revolution' There seems to be several definitions that all point to the same end. The Scientific Revolution was a revolution in thinking -- ideas, thoughts, and beliefs. It was a time where long-held viewpoints pertaining to the natural world were being challenged and overturned by new discoveries in nature and science. Major discoveries of several individuals played key roles in this revolution-- the most famous of which are contributed to Nicolas Copernicus, Galileo Galilei, and Isaac Newton. There were also some low-key players involved in the revolution. Sir Francis Bacon was one of them. While his significance to the Scientific Revolution is debated, the following will explore this revolution and the contribution he made to it. When and How Did The Revolution Begin' A concrete starting point for the Scientific Revolution is a challenge to distinguish. Some pinpoint the late 1540’s – 1700’s, and others say the revolution began with Copernicus and ended with Newton. Agreeing with the latter, it makes sense to say that the Scientific Revolution began with The Discoveries. What are The Discoveries you ask' The Discoveries were major breakthroughs in the sciences that contradicted reverenced beliefs that had been passed down from ancient Greeks. The theories of these Greeks- Aristotle, Ptolemy, and Galen for instance- served as the foundation of European thought in the areas of physics, astronomy, and medicine for over a thousand years. In 1543, Andreas Vesalius published a book, The Structure of the Human Body, which identified inaccuracies in Galen’s work. At the same time, Copernicus, a mathematician, published On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres where he restructured Ptolemy’s theories regarding the movement of celestial bodies. According to Chambers, Ptolemy’s theory was that the earth was stationary while the sun and other planets revolved around it and “irregularities were accounted for by epicycles.”[1] Copernicus found that the sun instead was the center of the universe and that the earth and other celestial objects circled it. Furthermore, Galileo’s discovery of inertia voided the authority of Aristotle’s theories of motion. Aristotle believed that objects stopped moving because an outside force was no longer being applied to them. Aristotle’s theory did not work for all moving objects, one object being the arrow. Galileo’s findings revealed that certain objects (like an arrow that has been launched forth from a bow) keep moving due to inertia, not a vacuum as Aristotle had said- even when the external force of the bow is no longer applied- and a block of wood would stop sliding across a table due to friction, a factor that Aristotle overlooked. These findings created a great stir in sixteenth century Europe as foundational beliefs were shaken and proven wrong. “It was becoming evident that the ancient theories could not account for new observations without highly complicated adjustments.”[2] These new claims also caused friction between the church and those who made the discoveries. The church believed that some of the discoveries were offensive and went against scripture. As a result, the church condemned these discoveries and tried to silence those, such as Galileo, who made “offensive” claims. This, however, was merely the beginning of the Scientific Revolution. Other Influences That Contributed to the Scientific Revolution Technological inventions and experimentation were also catalysts leading to the Scientific Revolution. According to Chambers, “the architects, navigators, engineers, and weapons experts of the Renaissance were important pioneers of a new reliance on measurement and observation that affected . . . how problems in physics were addressed.”[3] Chambers also states that new inventions, such as “the telescope, the vacuum pump, the thermometer, the barometer, and the microscope . . . encouraged the development of a scientific approach.”[4] This approach veered from ancient theories and attempts at scientific discovery formerly applied in alchemy and astrology that are now disregarded as magic. Who was Sir Francis Bacon' Sir Francis Bacon (1561-1626) was an English Philosopher, Lawyer, Statesman, and Essayist. In addition, Bacon was a member of Parliament and the Queen’s counsel. And to this day, he is considered the father of modern science. Bacon is well known for his development of the Baconian Method, his theory of idols, and his philosophical works, Novum Organum (New Instrument) and The Advancement of Learning.[5] Bacon also laid the groundwork for scientific institutions through his idea of cooperative research. This idea materialized in England as the Invisible College (a group of scientists that gathered to discuss and exchange each other’s findings), which later became the Royal Society. The main purpose of the Royal Society was to gather knowledge and to conduct scientific research.[6] Bacon’s Philosophy At the age of 12, Bacon entered Trinity College Cambridge and three years later, he entered Gray’s Inn where he studied law. Bacon “developed a dislike for Aristotelian philosophy at Trinity College, and he also opposed Platonism.”[7] Aristotle’s method was based heavily on observation. According to Bacon, “Science was to be experimental, to take note of how human activity produces changes in things and not merely to record what happens independently of what men do.”[8] Bacon generally believed the logic of the ancient Greeks and the way they went about interpreting nature did science a disservice and was “effective in quenching and stopping inquiry; and have done more harm by spoiling and putting an end to other men's efforts than good by their own.” [9] In Novum Organum, Bacon introduces a new method of scientific discovery-- the Baconian method, which eventually became the scientific method that we know today. Bacon emphasizes two rules in his method: "to drop all preconceived notions and make a fresh start; and ... to refrain for a while from trying to rise to the most general conclusions or even near to them."[10] To accomplish this fresh start, one had to rid himself of four idols: “1. Idols of the Tribe (Idola Tribus): This is humans' tendency to perceive more order and regularity in systems than truly exists, and is due to people following their preconceived ideas about things. 2. Idols of the Cave (Idola Specus): This is due to individuals' personal weaknesses in reasoning due to particular personalities, likes and dislikes. 3. Idols of the Marketplace (Idola Fori): This is due to confusions in the use of language and taking some words in science to have a different meaning than their common usage. 4. Idols of the Theatre: This is the following of academic dogma and not asking questions about the world.”[11] Bacon also believed that science should start with Tables of Investigation. “The Table of Presence lists instances in which the phenomenon being studied occurs. The Table of Absence in Proximity includes the important negative instances; these are the ones most like the positive instances. The Table of Comparison compares the degrees of the phenomenon.”[12] Bacon’s philosophy was a blatant assault on the theories and traditions handed down by ancient Greeks. Even though his work was quite revolutionary, it was not immediately received. It was the work of later scientists that pulled from and built on the foundation that Bacon laid that caused his theories to live on and become intertwined in the mainstream of European thought. Bibliography "Baconian method - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia." Main Page - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baconian_method (accessed April 16, 2010). Chambers, Mortimer, Barbara Hanawalt, Theodore Rabb, Lisa Tiersten, and Isser Woloch. The Western Experience Volume II. 10 ed. New York City: McGraw-Hill Humanities/Social Sciences/Languages, 2009. Clouding, and Ill-Ordered. "Francis Bacon (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)." Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/francis-bacon/. "Francis Bacon, Sir." Encyclopedia of World Biography, 2nd ed. 17 Vols. Gale Research, 1998. Reproduced in Biography Resource Center. Farmington Hills, Mich.: Gale, 2010. http://galenet.galegroup.com/servlet/BioRC "Francis Bacon: Novum Organum (1620)." Constitution Society Home Page. http://www.constitution.org/bacon/nov_org.htm (accessed April 12, 2010). ----------------------- 1 Mortimer Chambers et al., The Western Experience (New York City: McGraw-Hill Humanities/Social Sciences/Languages, 2009), 451. [1] Ibid., 450 [2] Mortimer Chambers et al., The Western Experience (New York City: McGraw-Hill Humanities/Social Sciences/Languages, 2009), 451. [3] Ibid., 451 [4] Clouding and Ill-Ordered, “Francis Bacon,” Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/francis-bacon/ [5] Chambers, The Western Experience, 459 [6] Encyclopedia of World Biography, 2nd ed., s.v. “Francis Bacon, Sir.” [7] Encyclopedia of World Biography, 2nd ed., s.v. “Francis Bacon, Sir.” [8] Constitution Society Home Page, "Francis Bacon: Novum Organum (1620)," http://www.constitution.org/bacon/nov_org.htm [9] Encyclopedia of World Biography, 2nd ed., s.v. “Francis Bacon, Sir.” [10] Main page- Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia, "Baconian method - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia," http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baconian_method. [11] Encyclopedia of World Biography, 2nd ed., s.v. “Francis Bacon, Sir.”