The_American_Party_System_Pre-Civil_War

PARTISAN POLITICS I. SECOND AMERICAN PARTY SYSTEM A. Democrats (Support Andrew Jackson) a. Martin Van Buren 1. In order to get support, you need to pursue policies the people want. 2. Thinks political parties are good for the government 3. Also are good for the system of checks and balances b. Want more liberty c. Stronger in the South B. Whigs (Oppose Andrew Jackson) a. Leaders of the Whig Party: Henry Clay (Main Whig), Daniel Webster, John Quincy Adams (JQA returns to Congress after his 1 term as president) b. Henry Clay’s American System 1. Protective Tariff 2. National Bank 3. Internal Improvements c. Stronger in the North II. ELECTION OF 1836 A. Van Buren was the Democratic candidate B. Whigs can’t decide who to have for a candidate so they nominate two men and their votes are split C. Van Buren wins III. VAN BUREN’S PRESIDENCY A. Panic of 1837 a. Caused from Andrew Jackson’s lack of economic skills b. Causes Van Buren’s presidency to be completely overshadowed by economic crisis IV. THE LOG CABIN CAMPAIGN AND THE ELECTION OF 1840 A. Whigs realize they need a presidential candidate a. Model their candidate after Andrew Jackson 1. Looks good in uniform 2. No political background so no political enemies 3. Keeps mouth shut while campaigning B. William Henry Harrison a. Nominated for presidency because he fits the Jackson characteristics C. John Tyler a. Nominated as VP D. Whigs don’t have a platform for this election because they don’t want people to disagree with them E. Use the slogan “Tippecanoe, get Tyler too” a. William Henry Harrison fought in Tippecanoe which was a battle against the Indians F. Known as log cabin campaign because campaigners went to every door and talked about how much of a common man Harrison is a. Talk him up to be just a normal American b. Didn’t really discuss political stances G. Party strived hard to win election, “Out democrat the democrats” H. Present Van Buren as an elitist, too high class V. A WHIG PRESIDENT – BUT NOT HARRISON A. Voter Turnout: a. 1824: 27% b. 1828: 56% c. 1840: 78% B. Harrison wins, but Henry Clay is party leader a. Clay expects to stay in charge, so he stays in Congress and Webster joins Harrison’s cabinet. b. They surround Harrison with Whigs c. This somewhat upsets Harrison C. Harrison’s Inaugural Address a. Cold and rainy day b. Harrison gave a long speech without wearing a hat c. Caught pneumonia and died a month later (dumbass) D. John Tyler (former VP) becomes President a. First time for presidential successor b. Makes it clear though that he is president c. Essentially serves out entire 4 year term d. Tyler is very different than Harrison, mainly in that he had a background in politics, and was a Democrat 1. Only reason he was a Whig is because he hated Andrew Jackson 2. He is a Whig, but differs in his views of the Whigs 3. A Democrat in power, but with views against everyone else in power E. Henry Clay decides to show Tyler up a. Clay’s American System: 1. Protective Tariff (Tyler vetoed) 2. National Bank (Tyler vetoed) 3. Internal Improvements (Tyler Vetoed) b. John Tyler vetoes entire Whig platform 1. This pisses the other Whigs off and they kick him out of the party VI. TROUBLE IN TEXAS A. Manifest Destiny a. Idea that Americans are destined to occupy the entire continent from the Atlantic to the Pacific b. Idea that consumed Americans in the 1830’s c. Causes many people to move out West (thought to be a better lifestyle, “American Dream”) d. Eventually fall upon Texas, which is a Mexican Providence B. Settlers are welcomed into Mexican Territories because Mexicans do not have diverse settlements in Texas area a. By 1835, there are over 30,000 Americans in Texas, which is 10 times that of the Mexicans b. They consider themselves Americans, not Mexicans C. Santa Anna a. Dictator of Mexico (What he says in government goes) b. Americans in Texas (Texans) don’t like being under Santa Anna’s rule c. They send Santa Anna a list of grievances d. Santa Anna sees this as a rebellion and decides to put an end to the Americans in Texas e. Americans declare independence in Texas with the hopes of joining the United States f. 30,000 Texans fighting the Nation of Mexico (population of 7 million) g. San Antonio (The Alamo) 1. First major battle in the war 2. The Alamo is an old Spanish Mission so they have walls and can pretty much turn it into a fort. 3. Reason for San Antonio is because Texans want to stop the Mexicans from destroying their homes and also to slow the Mexicans down for Sam Houston (leader of the Texans) 4. Col. William Bear Travis (In command at Alamo), leads 189 men against Santa Anna’s main Mexican Army 5. Davy Crockett, of TN, was a former congressman of TN but is a feisty son of a bitch 6. Jim Bowie (crazy knife fighter) 7. Texans don’t stop fighting, keep fighting off waves of Mexicans 8. Fighting goes on for 12 days 9. Messengers sent out for reinforcements, but none come 10. Col. Travis finally tells everyone to go home if they want, but says he will stay and fight till his death. 11. Every man stays and fights 12. Next morning, Mexicans raise black flag (no prisoners, all will die) 13. Mexican Army breaks through and kills all but a wife and 2 slaves, who preach of the heroism of the 189, who killed over 1,000 Mexicans h. Sam Houston 1. Leader of the Texans 2. San Jacinto a. Houston leads the Texans and defeats Santa Anna b. Houston captures Santa Anna and make him sign a document saying Texas is free c. When he gets back to Mexico, Santa Anna and the government refuse to acknowledge Texas as free 3. Houston elected president of Texas and send message to Van Buren to become a state a. Van Buren ignores request because if Texas came into the U.S., it would be a slave state 4. Texas says fuck that noise and becomes its own country a. France and England recognize Texas as a country 5. Tyler thinks if he can get Texas into the Union then he can be reelected a. John Calhoun as his VP b. Gets a treaty for Texas to become annexed to the U.S. c. Congress oppose the treaty because of the slavery issue d. Anti-Slavery i. Want to prohibit further expansion of slavery ii. Don’t want to abolish it where it exists D. Texas Annexation a. Whigs ( Oppose b. Democrats ( Support VII. ELECTION OF 1844 A. John Tyler falls off because he was just riding the whole Texas Annexation thing but didn’t have a party B. Whigs ( Henry Clay C. Van Buren wants Democratic nomination, but he opposes annexation D. Barn Burners E. James K. Polk a. Democratic Dark horse b. Democratic platform comes out strongly in favor of EXPANSION c. Talk about expanding to not only Texas, but Oregon as well d. Oregon was a big deal because it was split between Great Britain, Russia, and the U.S. e. 54’40 of Fight! 1. Slogan because on a map Oregon is 54’40 longitude/latitude F. Liberty Party a. Anti-Slavery Whigs b. Liberty Party gets 60,000 votes in NY, causing Henry Clay to lose the State and lose the election VIII. POLK’S PRESIDENCY A. Walker Tariff 1846 a. Brings tariff down to reasonable level B. 54’40 not settled, Oregon (British owned) was split in down the middle C. Wants California a. Cali is on the Pacific, good deep water port IX. MEXICAN WAR A. John Tyler is still president, Polk has not been inaugurated a. Tyler wants Texas from Mexico b. Texas is annexed to the Americans which pisses Mexicans off B. Joint Resolution ( Dec. 1845 C. Spot Resolutions a. Implications that Americans who had claimed to be shot on American soil were actually shot on Mexican soil D. Abraham Lincoln a. Against the Mexican war E. Zachary Taylor (old rough and ready) F. General Winfield Scott (old fuss and feathers) a. Taylor and Scott sent into Mexico to kick some ass G. John C. Fremont (the Pathfinder) a. Gets group of 60 American men who declare California as an independent Republic b. Bear Flag Republic ( California c. Within a week, an American naval fleet is on the Pacific Coast protecting California H. Fighting throughout war goes good, we kick ass I. Nicholas Trist a. Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo (1848) b. Mexico recognizes that Texas and the southwest is now American territory J. This fulfills Manifest Destiny and begins a surge in nationalism K. Also means new states, which begins the division of North vs. South The creation of the two party system first highlighted the differences of the northern and southern mindset. Republicans dominated the North and Democrats the South. Based on beliefs in the size and role of government and later fueled by issues in the Missouri Compromise and a war with Mexico, the two parties formed a line, not based on idea, but on geography. Ideas became platforms, platforms had to be supported, and politicians had to be elected who would support those platforms. The result became a sectional divide instead of a political debate. Likewise the Kansas-Nebraska act, the Wilmot Proviso and the Compromise of 1850 illustrate how each section was hell bent on achieving superior numbers in representation in Washington. The South appeared eager, even at the cost of War with Mexico, to obtain greater land holdings for plantations and thus the use of slavery. The North was not willing to allow bondage of fellow human beings expand beyond the existing borders. ANTEBELLUM AMERICAN LIFE I. SOCIAL CHANGES A. DEMOCRATIZATION a. White Manhood Suffrage (All white men can vote) B. WESTWARD EXPANSION a. Pace picks up after we acquire California and Oregon b. Skip American Midwest c. The west is now viewed as where the American Dream lies d. Journey out west was dangerous and took about 6 months e. Donner Party i. Led by John Donner, a moderately prosperous farmer ii. 1846 ( prepare to head to California iii. Party had 87 people iv. Started too late in the year and overloaded their wagon (made every mistake) v. Also, decide to take some bullshit “shortcut” through the mountains to get into California vi. Winter comes and they are basically fucked vii. Group of less than 12 make snow shoes and try to walk through the mountains and deep snow because there is civilization on the other side of the mountain viii. A few men die and the others eat the poor bastards ix. Everyone in the abandoned Party (the ones stuck on the east side of the mountain) begins cannibalism x. This story hits the paper and everyone is wondering WTF C. TRANSPORTATION REVOLUTION a. Roads are improved b. Local and state governments begin building roads c. Canals are also built i. Eerie Canal in 1825 which connects the Great Lakes to NY d. Steamboats also become popular i. Speed up water transportation and they make rivers a two-way river for the first time e. Railroads become most important form of transportation i. Drastically fast and cheap ii. Tracks don’t wash out D. IMMIGRATION a. Between 1840 and 1860 there is a huge spike in the number of immigrants coming in b. Steam powered ships make it easy and cheap to cross the ocean c. The problem with these new immigrants is that they are poor i. There was a population boom in Europe so many left d. Immigrants are poor and are basically stuck on the east coast e. They work in factories for little money and they live in urban areas f. Another problem is that they are of a different religion (Immigrants are Catholic) g. Protestants in America feel that these Catholic Immigrants are sent from the Pope and it causes a concern about the future of American Democracy i. Nativism 1. Anti-Immigrant feelings 2. Love old stock Americans 3. Dislike these new, different immigrants E. MANUFACTURING a. Technological Innovations b. Innovations lead to new factories, mostly in the North East F. URBANIZATION a. Increase in cities II. NORTH VS. SOUTH A. ABOLITIONISM a. American Colonization Society b. Liberia c. Gradual d. Compensation e. William Lloyd Garrison – The Liberator f. IMMEDIATE, UNCOMPENSATED EMANCIPATION g. LETTERS TO SOUTHERNERS h. Petition Congress i. GAG Rule 1. Any petitions congress gets from abolitionists are immediately tabled and not brought to discussion i. Slave Power Conspiracy B. SECTIONAL POLITICS a. Wage Slavery i. Working for very low wages ii. No maximum hours of work iii. Shitty conditions b. Clash between North and South i. 1846 ( Wilmot Proviso 1. Slavery is prohibited in any territory gained by the war with Mexico 2. Southerners view this negatively, because the economy in the south is based on slavery, therefore they were not welcome out west c. Four Responses i. Extend Missouri Compromise Line 1. James K. Polk ii. Free Soil 1. Prevent slavery all together 2. Anti-Slavery ( stop expansion of slavery a. Not saying end slavery where it exists b. Different from Abolitionist 3. Abolitionism ( End slavery all together iii. Pro-South 1. John C. Calhoun iv. Popular Sovereignty 1. Lewis Cass – Michigan a. Let the people in the Western Territories decide for themselves C. 1848 Election a. Democrats ( Lewis Cass (popular sovereignty douche) b. Whigs ( Zachary Taylor (new comer dressed in a uniform…war hero) c. Free Soil ( Martin Van Buren (guys who are anti-slavery) d. Zachary Taylor wins D. California a. Gold Rush i. 1849 ( Largest mass migration in U.S. history ii. Known as the 49’ers 1. Shit was dangerous around the Gold Rush areas 2. People killed each other over gold 3. 1850 ( California was 92% male b. California Statehood i. President Zachary Taylor (Only president from Louisiana) ii. Slavery in the Territories' 1. Bypass Territorial stage and make California a state 2. Pisses off the Southerners because they thought Zachary Taylor, a southern man, would protect his fellow southerners’ rights 3. Having CA become a free state would break the balance of power between Free States and Slave States in congress (16 states to 15 states) iii. Secession is now discussed amongst the southern states 1. Only way for the south to protect itself is to leave the union E. Crisis of 1850 a. Slavery in the Mexican Cession' i. If Zachary Taylor’s proposal for states goes through, the south will leave the union b. Calhoun, Webster, and Clay i. Known as the Great Triumvirate ii. Spent entire careers preserving “The Revolution” iii. Keeping the Union Perpetual is their goal iv. Omnibus Bill 1. Many different provisions in this one piece of legislation 2. Series of debates about what to do v. President Zachary Taylor 1. Says don’t listen to Henry Clay because he already had his plan 2. July 4, 1850 ( Zachary Taylor is celebrating, a few days later he dies vi. VP is Millard Fillmore 1. Everything that Zachary Taylor is not 2. He is an experienced politician, he is brilliant 3. A self-made man, son of poor farmers from upstate NY 4. Works as hard as he can to prevent southern secession vii. Stephen Douglas (Known as the Little Giant) viii. Compromise of 1850 1. Henry Clay’s Legislative Package 2. California ( Free State 3. New Mexico ( territory, settled boundary dispute with Texas 4. Utah ( territory 5. Fugitive Slave Act a. Federal intervention in capturing runaway slaves in the North 6. Slave trade abolished in D.C. ix. Armistice of 1850 1. Doesn’t solve the question, merely puts it off for another 10 years 2. Both northerners and southerners go home with the idea of a victory x. Slaver Power Conspiracy 1. Put pressure on northern blacks to prove they are not runaway slaves 2. A single judge determined if the black person at hand was a runaway slave 3. Financial incentives for the judge if they ruled the black person was a runaway slave xi. Harriet Beecher Stowe 1. Uncle Tom’s Cabin xii. Mental Giants 1. Compromise of 1850 was the last stand of Calhoun, Webster, and Clay 2. Replaced by Mental Midgets 3. Parties are designed to win elections THE IMPENDING CRISIS I. ELECTION OF 1852 a. Franklin Pierce ( Democrats b. General Winfield Scott (Nativist ( Anti Immigrant; also anti slavery) ( Whigs II. REVIVAL OF SECTIONAL CONTROVERSY – KANSAS NEBRASKA a. Gadsen Purchase b. Transcontinental Railroad i. A railroad out west to California ii. Everyone wants railroad in their city because it brings along an economic boom c. Stephen Douglas (Democrat) i. Proposes Kansas-Nebraska Act in 1854 ii. Kansas ( Territory iii. Nebraska ( Territory iv. Popular Sovereignty v. Repeal Missouri Compromise Line vi. Kansas-Nebraska Act is passed and the South is thrilled, while the North is pissed vii. North view this as Slave Power Conspiracy viii. The passing of this act kills the Whig party III. TWO NEW PARTIES EMERGE A. KNOW NOTHINGS (The American Party) a. Anti Immigrant Party b. Trying to capitalize on Anti Immigrant sentiment c. Believe that the pope is plotting to take over the U.S. by sending Catholics into the U.S. B. REPUBLICANS a. Anti Southern Party b. Focus on trying to stop the power of the South from expanding by stopping slave expansion c. Believe that if the territories out west come in as free states, then they will vote with the North and help improve the power of the North d. Try to pass laws saying no slaves out west, which would stop southerners from moving out west. e. Use majority rule to get their way, because North out numbers the South f. They realized that if they won all the northern votes, they would not need a single southern vote to win the presidency g. Adopt Whig platform, try to attract Northern Whigs IV. BLEEDING KANSAS a. William H. Seward i. Early republican who dares the south to try to make Kansas a slave state ii. Says we will engage in competition over the soil, “For God favors those who have numbers and rights” b. New England Emigrant Aid Society c. Lecompton ( Pro Slavery government set up in Kansas by southerners i. Northerners say southerners gave illegal votes (Border Ruffians) d. Topeka ( Anti Slavery government set up in Kansas by northerners e. Beecher’s Bibles i. Crates sent to Kansas labeled “Bibles”, but the crates were actually filled with guns…. f. Sack of Lawrence i. Pro Slavery forces attack Anti Slavery town of Lawrence ii. Known as the “Sack of Lawrence” even though the town wasn’t sacked, but the anti slavery newspaper sells it as a Sack to invoke emotions and tension g. John Brown i. Crazy bastard, legitimately fucked up in the head ii. Murders a father and son in front of wife and daughters in a small town iii. Move down the road and do it to the next house iv. This is known as the “Pottawatomie Massacre” V. SUMNER VS. BROOKS a. Charles Sumner of Massachusetts i. Gives speech entitled “Crime Against Kansas” ii. Attacks the institution of Slavery iii. Blames the South for what happened in Kansas iv. Blames Senator Andrew Butler of South Carolina 1. Calls him a liar 2. Says he has been sleeping with whores 3. Makes fun of his old age and shit he does because he is old (i.e. drooling) b. Louis Cass (Big time Massachusetts politician) denounced the speech c. Preston Brooks (Representative from South Carolina and cousin of Butler) i. Could have challenged him to a duel, but he says Fuck that Noise ii. Beats the shit out of Sumner, makes him his bitch, breaks his cane on him iii. The House censures Brooks, and Brooks resigns and returns home iv. The North then turns the story around as “If you say something bad about the south, they will beat the crap out of you because they are in a drunken rage over power” d. Preston Brooks goes home and gets unanimously re-elected, even given new canes to beat more Yankees with VI. ELECTION OF 1856 a. Know Nothings ( Millard Fillmore b. Republicans ( John C. Fremont (CA) c. Democrats ( James Buchanan (PA) d. Buchanan wins, but the Republicans do extremely well VII. CRISIS BROADENS A. DRED SCOTT a. Slave from Virginia b. Taken into Illinois then brought into Missouri c. His owner dies, and he uses the help of friends to go to court d. They say his time spent in the Free State of Illinois makes him a free man e. Supreme Court says the slave Dred Scott has no rights as a citizen and cannot sue f. Also say his time spent in Illinois was not enough to make him a free man g. The Supreme Court then says Congress cannot interfere with slavery in the Territories h. Problem is that the Republicans are anti-slavery, which means stop the expansion of slavery i. This would make the Supreme Court’s ruling invalid ii. Republicans say this is another example of the Slave Power Conspiracy B. LECOMPTON CONSTITUTION a. Kansas wants to become a state b. Pro Slavery government at Lecompton calls a delegation to draw up a constitution c. Anti Slavery people in Topeka say fuck that and don’t vote d. Elections come and it is just pro slavery people voting so the pro slavery forces win and send the constitution to Congress e. James Buchanan says let the southerners have Kansas f. Stephen Douglas says not so fast i. Douglas wants to run for president in 1860 ii. Needs re election for Senate seat in Illinois in 1858 iii. Runs against Abraham Lincoln iv. Realizes he needs the northerner’s vote to beat Lincoln, so he openly puts down the Lecompton Constitution v. Lecompton Constitution is overwhelmingly put down vi. Southerners then turn on Steven Douglas and ironically Abraham Lincoln beats him in the 1860 Presidential Election because Douglas lost all his southern votes C. PANIC OF 1857 a. Economic Panic D. JOHN BROWN’S RAID a. Flees Kansas because he is wanted for murder b. While fleeing, he realizes he was chosen by God to rid the country of slavery c. His plan is to arm all the slaves and have them kill all the white people d. “The Secret Six” are a New England financial group funding this e. He planned to attack Harper’s Ferry, VA i. Federal Arsenal located here ii. He thought if he could take it over, the plan could work iii. Had 22 men with him iv. They manage to take control of the Arsenal v. John Brown then waits for all the slaves to join, but then realizes he forgot to tell the slaves about his plan vi. He is basically a crazy fucking retard vii. Robert E. Lee leads a federal army to take back control of the Arsenal viii. John Brown is charged with Treason and Insurrection ix. He is put under trial and found guilty and hung f. The Northerners view John Brown as a Martyr VIII. SITUATION BY 1860 A. SOUTH’S VIEW a. Realize that slavery would end with a race war b. John Brown had planned that, and this brought fear to the southerners c. The South view John Brown as a prototypical Republican d. Southerners do not know much about Republicans because Republicans do not campaign in the south e. Abraham Lincoln wasn’t even on the ballot in the South f. Fire Eaters i. Southerners who want immediate secession ii. Get more persuasive as time goes on B. NORTH’S VIEW a. Tired of listening to the South bitch b. Basically a bunch of pompous assholes who only think about what is good for themselves c. Northerners say if the South wants to go, then let them SECESSION AND WAR I. Democratic Convention of 1860 A. Charleston, SC B. Stephen Douglas 1) Logical Democratic nomination 2) South pissed at him for fucking them over C. Jefferson Davis 1) Want southern minority rights D. William Lowndes Yancey 1) Radical Southerner who wants the south to secede 2) Leads Southern Democrats out of convention and basically say fuck off to the others E. Northern Democrats ( Stephen Douglas F. Southern Democrats ( John Breckinridge II. Election of 1860 A. Republican Party 1) William H. Seward 2) Abraham Lincoln (wanted to stop expansion of slavery, not abolish it) B. Constitutional Union Party 1) John Bell is the candidate 2) Party based on a platform of maintaining the Union C. Lincoln wins presidency, and Republicans win both the House and the Senate III. The Road to War A. The Lower South Secedes 1) December 20, 1860 ( South Carolina secedes with unanimous vote 2) Fire Eaters (Want immediate secession) 3) Cooperationists (Want to cooperate with just the entire south and secede together) 4) Unionists (Oppose secession….pussies) 5) John J. Crittenden ( Crittenden Compromise - Series of amendments and resolutions to keep slavery where it existed - Also wanted to extend the Missouri Compromise Line - Runs into problems with Republican Congressmen 6) SC, MS, FL, AL, GA, LA & TX secede by 1861 7) Delegates sent to Montgomery, AL -Constitution forms the Confederate States of America -Jefferson Davis (MS) ( President - Alexander Stephens ( Vice President - Both guys were pretty moderate B. Lincoln’s Inauguration 1) Keeps his mouth shut until he is inaugurated C. Fort Sumter (Charleston, SC) 1) Major Robert Anderson -Tells Lincoln he is running out of supplies - Means he will have to abandon fort to the Confederates or get Lincoln’s aid 2) Jefferson Davis says fuck that noise, Lincoln isn’t supplying the fort 3) April 12, 1861 -PGT Beauregard (LA) demands Fort Sumter surrender, and Anderson says no - Confederates shell the fort and 33 hours later Anderson surrenders -This is the start to the Civil War D. Upper South Secedes 1) AR, VA, TN, NC secede 2) Richmond, VA ( becomes capital of the south 3) Kentucky and Missouri are attempting to remain neutral 4) Lincoln attempts to stop Maryland from seceding by arresting the pro secession politicians IV. “Furious, Bloody Civil War” A. Ideology of War B. Strategy 1) Northern Strategy - The passage of the Kansas-Nebraska Act exerted a tremendous impact, which included: • The reopening of the slavery question in the territories with almost immediate tragic results in “Bleeding Kansas” • The president's hope for reelection dashed • The complete realignment of the major political parties • The Democrats lost influence in the North and were to become the regional proslavery party of the South • The Whig Party, which had opposed the Kansas-Nebraska Act, died in the South and was weakened in the North • A new Republican Party emerged as an immediate political force, drawing in anti-Nebraska Whigs and Democrats. The Fate of Their Country Notes: -The politicians who first brought up the idea about slavery’s extension out west “opened up Pandora’s box” -He said that most politicians often made “shortsighted calculations of partisan advantage” rather than considering the Nation’s interest as a whole. (They thought about what’s best for their party) -President James K. Polk was Holt’s (the author) greatest villain because he feels that Polk “used his power as commander in chief to deploy troops to pursue his personal agenda”. -On the chapter about the Wilmot Proviso, he observes that the 1848 effort of Free Soilers to oppose slavery's expansion, "regardless of attempts to settle that issue, is one reason why that vexatious and increasingly dangerous question defied permanent settlement". -Meanwhile, in his chapter on the Kansas-Nebraska Act, he criticizes New York's Hardshell Hunker Democrats for exploiting the slavery extension issue in order to punish intra-party rivals. Holt is equally critical of the F Street Mess, a handful of powerful southern senators who refused to support the organization of Nebraska Territory unless Congress explicitly repealed the antislavery provisions of the Missouri Compromise. Their obduracy doubtless influenced Illinois Senator Stephen A. Douglas's fateful decision in 1854 to cooperate in the repeal of the provisions, which enraged antislavery northerners and precipitated the organization of the Republican Party. Yet Douglas also comes in for blame. Holt maintains that Douglas's desire to rekindle partisan rivalries through the Kansas-Nebraska Act sacrificed the nation's interest to that of the Democratic Party (pp. 99-100). Last, but not least, Holt does not spare the free soil activists who condemned Douglas's Nebraska bill in the incendiary January 1854 "Appeal of the Independent Democrats." -As he put it, the freesoil protesters, like Douglas, pursued "their own partisan purposes," which in this case was to "perpetuate their party and their own political careers" in the face of declining northern interest in the slavery issue after the Compromise of 1850. -Holt seeks to explain the behavior of northern Democratic and southern Whig congressmen, whose votes produced a sectional rather than partisan divide. Northern Democrats previously had joined southern Democrats to support the annexation of Texas, while southern Whigs had leagued with northern Whigs to oppose it, yet many northern Democrats strongly and persistently supported the Wilmot Proviso in concert with northern Whigs, while southern Whigs and southern Democrats bitterly opposed it. -Holt often recognizes that politicians did in fact respond to public pressure. He seeks to explain the behavior of northern Democratic and southern Whig congressmen, whose votes produced a sectional rather than partisan divide. -Given the underlying proslavery attitudes in the South, conciliatory southern Whigs faced a difficult challenge: either keep slavery out of public debate or face immolation at the polls. -Slavery was the foundation of the southern social system, the basis of its wealth and culture, and threats to it necessarily produced great volatility in American politics. -Holt looks at the final formation of the two party system, the Wilmot Proviso, the Compromise of 1850, and the Kansas-Nebraska Act to show how politicians used the issue of slavery to gain political power.