Substance_Addiction_and_Poverty

Abstract This literature review will consider several research examples of poverty’s correlation to substance abuse. It will however, mention other correlations with substance abuse, but in this particular instance, will focus on the poverty-factor as an independent variable. Hypotheses will be presented and data collected to validate expected outcomes. In contrast, arguments will be presented to challenge the validity of these hypotheses. A counter hypothesis that substance addiction/poverty correlation is too varied, complex, and problematic to validate will be presented. In essence, we will attempt to contrast previous findings of poverty’s relationship with substance addiction by identifying contradictions and/or inconsistencies. As a finale to this literature review, a personal and unique hypothesis displacing poverty as an independent variable to the dependent variable of substance abuse will be introduced. Religion will be utilized as an independent variable to the dependent substance abuse variable. Hypothesis is expected to confirm religion when correlated with the probability of substance addiction will prove a significant deterrent in the overwhelming majority participants included in this study. Review The National Institute on Drug Abuse (2009) defines substance addiction as a disorder characterized by habitual drug yearnings and compulsive tendencies to locate and use drugs. Accordingly, this compulsion is usually persistent despite the threat of dire consequences. Behaviors related to substance addiction result from extended drug exposure on brain functions. For this reason, substance addiction is considered a brain disease which inhibits an individual’s control over normal behavior. Origins of substance addiction are varied, complex, and controversial. Causation-factors include mental illness, genetics, anti-social personalities, moral weakness, will power deficiency, social environments, and poverty-levels (Friends, 2011). This paper will investigate the role of poverty’s correlation to substance abuse. It is hypothesized that poverty-level individuals will have greater rates of substance abuse than individuals who are not at poverty level. The subsequent five literary reviews will endeavor to support this hypothesis. In Mohammad Raza Ullah Kahn Niaza’s (n.d.) research concerning poor people in the context of Pakistan and their addictions to drugs, he discovered that these two variables had a definite correlation. In Pakistan, where 24% of the citizens live below the level of poverty, Niaza said that economic conditions had a significant impact on drug addiction. As a matter of fact, he noted that according to the World Drug Report 2000 of the United Nations Drug Control Program, Pakistan is one of the most drug infested nations in the world. The primary objectives of this study were to: • Determine various indicators relating poverty to substance abusers. • Establish the correlation between poverty and substance addiction. • Analyze the impact substance abuse had on users and their families. Niaza established the baseline for poverty utilizing the Economic Survey of Pakistan. He measured the correlation between economic variables using correlation and regression analysis. What Niaza discovered was that his hypothesis was correct: Poverty is a significant motivating factor in drug addiction. Avelardo Valdez, Charles D. Kaplan, and Russell L. Curtis, Jr. (2011) performed a study using 20,0000 high school male students as participants in 24 metropolitan areas to prove their hypothesis that poverty has a positive correlation to substance abuse. Cities included in this study were St. Louis, Houston, Fort Lauderdale, and Atlanta. The high school dropout rate in these areas ranged between 13% and 17%. The unemployment rate in most of the cities was between 10% and 13%. Inclusive in this study was how income levels affect alcohol and drug abuse. Results of this study showed that low-income urban communities characterized by poverty, unemployment, and welfare dependency are prone to greater substance abuse activities than those communities with higher income levels. Thus, research by Valdez, Kaplan, & Curtis confirms the hypothesis that poverty has a positive correlation to substance abuse. George F. Chavez and Diana T. Sanchez (n.d.) performed a California Health Interview Survey in which the correlation between poverty and substance abuse was considered among multiracial families. 5,827 adolescent and 56,089 adult participants with a mean age of 14.49 and 48.11 years respectively were randomly selected for this study. Measurements for socioeconomic status were based on Federal Poverty Level guidelines. Chavez and Sanchez hypothesized that poverty was one of several factors related to substance abuse. A statewide telephone survey was conducted in which participants were interviewed and asked to candidly respond to questions regarding alcohol and drug use. Results indicated that socioeconomic status had a positive correlation with substance abuse in both multiracial adolescents and adults. This research survey further confirmed the hypothesis that poverty is one of the correlated factors to substance abuse. Shaila Kahn (1997) used random samples from two models to test her hypothesis that poverty had a positive correlation to substance abuse. Longitudinal data from 1,257 community residents was collected in 1989 and 1991 utilizing the Winnipeg Health and Drinking Survey. In model one, Kahn hypothesized that a there was a casual correlation between poverty and substance abuse dependency. And it was hypothesized in model two that substance abuse rates increased with recent job loss, but decreased with longer unemployment periods. Participant males and females were equally represented. Poverty was the independent variable which was determined by employment status, level of education, number of individuals in the household, and income. In this particular study, alcohol use was established as the latent variable measured by weekly consumption, drinking patterns, total drinks per sitting and participant alcohol-related disorders. These disorders were organized into eight social and physiological categories. Alcohol dependency was considered as the dependent variable. A cross-sectional follow-up analysis was done with both models in which gender and age groups were tested separately. Results showed that as poverty increased, so did alcohol abuse. In addition, recent unemployment actually decreases alcohol use whereas longer unemployment periods increase alcohol dependency. Results from this study validate Kahn’s hypothesis that poverty and increased alcohol use and dependency are correlated, especially among men and young people. It was noted that alcohol was the only variable used in this study. Also, Kahn conceded that absolute validation of this hypothesis is inconclusive without further research. However, according to David J. Hanson, Ph D (1997), a drug is considered to be any type of substance which by virtue of its chemical composition modifies an organism’s ability to function. Therefore, the use of alcohol as a single variable to support Kahn’s hypothesis was acceptable. A study was done at Penn State University with regard to single mothers who had lost their jobs and had to resort to living on welfare. It was hypothesized that single mothers on welfare had a greater susceptibility to alcohol and drug dependency. In a national survey, data was collected from 2,728 single mothers on welfare. Their age range was 18 and older. Resulting information proved this hypothesis correct and confirmed the correlation between poverty and substance abuse (Tori, 2001). Combined data collected by the above research psychologists gives compelling evidence that supports the hypothesis that substance abuse and poverty are positively correlated. But on the other side of the argument, not all psychologists agree with the absolute validation of hypotheses data relating substance abuse to poverty. These opposing scientists contend that much of the information about the positive correlation between substance abuse and poverty is exaggerated and/or inconclusive. For example, Rosalyn DeWitt (2011) noted that when poverty is introduced as an independent variable with substance abuse as a dependent variable, methodologically can be problematic. First of all, research of this type has traditionally focused on lower-class participants. According to DeWitt, this perspective represents an isolated population involved in an intergenerational poverty cycle which may or may not be a permanent situation. In addition to this, individuals considered for substance abuse studies are a very heterogeneous society living in various locals and represented by an extended range of ages and ethnic groups. Also, lower-income participants for this kind of study often misrepresent the gravity of their drug use or poverty level. Furthermore, consider the following factors that may distort study results about the positive correlation between poverty and substance abuse: • Many substance abuse surveys use data collected from household samples. A significant number of participants targeted for a survey like this one live in households that are amorphous or extended. This produces an unstable environment for data gathering because of participant-exclusion. • Much data used in substance abuse studies is collected from individuals who are incarcerated. This introduces a biased report of substance abusers who are poor. Namely, not all people in prison or jail are poor. • Some substance abuse statistics come from drug treatment programs and outreach establishments. Obviously, not everybody who abuse drugs are involved in programs or services. Therefore, data collected from these types of sources are unreliable. • A number of individuals who abuse drugs have physical, emotional, or psychological issues that interfere with their ability or desire to pursue treatment. • Some substance abuse studies focus on particular drugs while excluding others. This methodology can greatly misrepresent the extent and limitation of drug use among low income individuals as contrasted with middle or upper class individuals. The Unites States Government Office of Technology Assessment’s (1994) executive summary considered the question of whether poor people were more vulnerable to developing substance addiction than other economic classes of individuals. While most psychologists agree that there is a positive correlation between substance addiction and poverty, resolving the matter of defining poverty is difficult. It must be noted that most psychologists draw conclusions about an individual’s propensity for developing substance addiction premised upon two variables: income level and education level. This approach to defining poverty can be very deceptive and overly simplistic. In order to assess the correlation between substance abuse and poverty, some psychologists have utilized federal guidelines. Still others measure this correlation by family socioeconomic standing. Socioeconomic analysis with regard to substance addiction has been determined by the National Institute on Drug Abuse. The problem with this analysis is that it asked for a straightforward “yes or no” response. It is true that the NIDA analysis reveals certain characteristic and pattern associations of substance abuse relating to poverty; however, it does not reveal the cause. Furthermore, the NIDA analysis demonstrates that type and quality of substance use is correlated with a diversity of individual and geographic characteristics. Finally, in the NIDA study, some segments of sample populations are excluded from the survey. This exclusion includes high school dropouts as well as individuals who are homeless or institutionalized. Unique Hypothesis Hypothesis: Individuals who practice religion are less inclined to drug addiction than individuals who do not practice religion. Defining Religion' Religion in this study is defined as beliefs, practices, rituals, and/or symbols that are organized systematically in order to facilitate a sense of closeness to God, a Higher Power, truth, and/or ultimate reality. The by-products of this facilitation are an understanding of individual responsibilities and relationships toward others (Wallace, Meyers, & Osai, n.d.). Psychologists understand the importance of the correlation between religion and abstinence from drug abuse. Who are the Religious' 90% of Americans consider themselves religious. However, for the purpose of this study, we will not focus on the overwhelming majority who wear religious labels, but those individuals who actually practice their particular religion. Psychologists John Wallace, Jr., Tony Brown, Jerald Bachman, and Thomas LaVeist (2003) did research with a representative sample of 8th, 10th, and 12th graders from the 48 contiguous states. They measured the importance of religion based on attitude, behavior, and organizational dimension. Results revealed that between 40% and 50% of sample students were considered as religious based on research criteria. Multi-religious participants included Protestants, Catholics, Buddhists, and Muslims. In addition, analyzed data showed that in almost every instance of participants who practiced a religion, the overwhelming majority also practiced abstinence from drug abuse. For instance, two-thirds of the residents in Utah are Mormons. This religious group was thought of as a good population for examining drug patterns of individuals who practice abstinence. Mormons do not believe in using alcohol or illegal drugs. Nevertheless, national research suggests that when members of groups that teach abstinence like the Latter Day Saints do engage in alcohol abuse, they tend to do so more often and heavily that their peers (Hawks &. Bahr, 1999). This is the downside of religion; however apostasy reveals its tremendous influence when it comes to abstinence from substance abuse. The Psychology of Religion Documentations about the relevance of religion to the well-being and psychotherapy of clients have been considered for nearly three decades. Ironically, the same documentations revealed that a significant number of mental health professionals feel unqualified to deal with religious issues. 340 APA-affiliated psychologists surveyed indicated that instructions in multicultural religious issues should be included in graduate training (Crook, O’Grady, Smith, Jensen, Golighty, & Potkar, 2011). Sigmund Freud considered religion as a necessity for the weak and needy. Certainly, drug addiction is a weakness needing dire attention. Freud contends that religion and the need for protection against the consequences of human weaknesses are identical. He said that the psychological significance of religion is that it gives the questing individuals information about what is most interesting or important to them. For this reason, religion is a highly prized commodity (Freud, 1968). The Psychology of Substance Addiction Though replete with complex psychological views, substance abuse generally has three basic definitions. Science’s dominate view sees substance addiction as a disease triggered by a substance. Others define it as a syndrome with different levels of effect. Still, there are scientists who equate substance addiction with patterns of behavior. The medicinal definition of substance addiction is a chronic neurobiological disorder possessing two primary characteristics: A chronic compulsion for drugs coupled with a narrow behavior towards limiting intake. The National Institute on Drug Abuse calls substance addiction a chronic brain-lapsing disease because it alters how the brain functions; and if left unattended, substance addiction can lead to death. To their credit, most psychologists indentify the abusing of drugs and alcohol as a treatable disorder as opposed to a criminal behavior (Sremac, 2010). Religion/Substance Abuse Correlation Religion as an independent variable has been identified as a shield against substance abuse. But the phenomenon of religion and how it affects individual abstinence needs further research. This is especially true of how religion influences young people. In a research project with sample Mexican and Mexican American adolescents, researchers set forth two hypotheses regarding drug use behaviors. These hypotheses are that religion would have protective effects on substance abuse behaviors and norms of pre-teens and that acculturation will mediate religious effects. Both study results supported the hypotheses that religion was a protective factor when it comes to substance abuse. However, the notion that acculturation would mediate these effects was not supported (.Marsiglia, Kulis, Nieri, & Parsai, 2005). Conclusion The correlation between substance addiction and religion is not clearly understood by many psychologists. Religion points the potential substance abuser to a Higher Power, ultimate reality, or truth. Indeed, the overwhelming majority of world societies consider themselves religious in one context or another. However, among those individuals who actually practice religion’s greater denominations (Protestant, Catholic, Buddhist, and Muslim), psychologists have validated data supporting religion’s tremendous influence in deterring substance abuse. How and why this correlation between religion and substance abuse works is still on the table. Nonetheless, whatever reasons, misunderstandings, or disagreements among psychologists may persist, the hypothesis that individuals who practice a religion are less susceptible to drug addiction than those who do not practice a religion is supported. References Avelardo, V., Kaplan, C. & Curtis, R. (2011). National Institute of Health. Aggressive Crime, Alcohol, Drug Use, and Concentrated Poverty in 24 U.S. Urban Areas. Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3015237/ Crook, R., O’Grady, K., Smith, T., Jensen, D., Golightly, T., & Potkar, K. (2011). Psychology of Religion and Spiritually. Addressing Religious and Spiritual Diversity in Graduate Training and Multicultural Education for Professional Psychologists. Retrieved from http://psycnet.apa.org/index.cfm'fa=search.displayRecord&id=5E0DCF3B-9863-08A6- 713E-E820D93FB98F&resultID=2&page=1&dbTab=pa Dewitt, R. (2011). eNotes. Encyclopedia of Drugs, Alcohol, and Addictive Behavior (vol. 2). Poverty and Drug Use. 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