Structure_of_the_English_Vocabulary

THE ENGLISH VOCABULARY English is a West Germanic language that arose in the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms of England.Following the economic, political, military, scientific, cultural, and colonial influence of Great Britain and the United Kingdom from the 18th century, via the British Empire, and of the United States since the mid-20th century, it has been widely dispersed around the world, become the leading language of international discourse, and has acquired use as lingua franca in many regions. It is widely learned as a second language and used as an official language of the European Union and many Commonwealth countries, as well as in many world organizations. It is the third most natively spoken language in the world, after Mandarin Chinese and Spanish. Due to the significant assimilation of various European languages throughout history, modern English contains a very large vocabulary.The Oxford English Dictionary, 2nd edition (OED2) includes over 600,000 definitions, following a rather inclusive policy. It embraces not only the standard language of literature and conversation, whether current at the moment, or obsolete, or archaic, but also the main technical vocabulary, and a large measure of dialectal usage and slang (Supplement to the OED, 1933). What is vocabulary' “Lexicology is the branch of linguistics that studies all aspects of the vocabulary of a particular language.“[2] Lexicologists are interested in establishing the extent of the current vocabulary of a language or what constituted the vocabulary of a language at some point in the past. Hence, vocabulary is perceived and analysed from both a synchronic and a diachronic point of view. Broadly defined, vocabulary is the knowledge of words and word meanings. If we go further into details vocabulary, or lexis, or lexicon appears to be the total stock of words of a language[3], its most important instrument of communication[4]. Merriam Webster online dictionary provides the following definitions of vocabulary : 1.a list or collection of words or of words and phrases usually alphabetically arranged and explained or defined : lexicon 2 a : a sum or stock of words employed by a language, group, individual, or work or in a field of knowledge b : a list or collection of terms or codes available for use (as in an indexing system) 3 : a supply of expressive techniques or devices (as of an art form) [5] It includes passive vocabulary (all the words recognized and understood, although not necessarily used, by a particular person[6]) and active vocabulary (all the words used by a particular person, socioeconomic group, profession, etc.[7]). All living languages are constantly changing and English is no exception. From the linguistic point of view, changes in pronunciation and grammar are much slower than changes in vocabulary that is constantly changing, growing and decaying. The changes in the vocabulary of a language are due both to linguistic and extralinguistic causes. Vocabulary is a permanent subject to change, as a reaction to changes in social life of speech communities. Dimensions of the English vocabulary According to Lipka (2002:21) the English vocabulary has two dimensions: a temporal and a geographical one. The temporal dimension is visible in its stratification through various influences at different times. The geographical dimension is very important and concerns the differencies between varieties of English. Considering the spread of the English language throughout the world, some linguists speak even of English vocabularies. Among the varieties of English the most famous is the case of American and British English. In many textbooks we can find pairs such as the following: Am E : railroad, baggage, sidewalk, truck BrE : railway, luggage, pavement, lorry Structure of the English Vocabulary Modern English has a very extensive vocabulary. A question naturally arises whether this enormous word-stock is composed of separate independent lexical units, or it should perhaps be regarded as a certain structured system made up of numerous interdependent and interrelated sub-systems or groups of words. This problem may be viewed in terms of the possible ways of classifying vocabulary items. Barbara Strang, in her book, Modern English Structure, states the following : “While grammar is the domain of systems , lexis is the domain of vast lists of formal items about which rather little generalization can be made” (1968:215). But even if from the historical point of view, the vocabulary is an accumulation of words, it is not merely a list of items. A number of important generalizations can be made.[8] Vocabulary is not simply an inventory of unconnected, isolated elements, but a lexico-semantic system of interdependent and interrelated elements. A change in one part of the system brings a change into another one. There are different approaches in establishig a structure of the english vocabulary. If we consider Sassure's structuralist approach, defining language as a structure of interdependent elements, we may distinguish between two types of structure in the English lexicon : external (to the word) and internal structure. Lexical or full words may substitute for each other (ie. be in opposition)or they may combine with each other. Such paradigmatic and syntagmatic realtions constitute the external structure. We may also look at the internal structure of lexical items, which are either morphologically complex (compounds, prefixal and sufixal derivatives) or simple. In the last case, although there may not be a morphological regularity visible, we may nevertheless find underlying semantic structure. But this approach is limited, as it cannot account for certain metaphorical or metonymic relationships in the lexicon. A distinction is often made between lexical and grammatical words. Lexical words are nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs. They are the base form of a word and are also referred to as lexemes. They have rather independent meanings and may be meaningful even in isolation or in a series. For instance, bottle has an independent meaning, and so does the series boy, break, bottle,stone. On the other hand, a word such as a, with, or a series such as a, the, to, with does not automatically suggest any identifiable meaning . Classes of lexical words include hundreds or even thousands of items and form open classes. Grammatical words are elements like prepositions, articles, conjunctions, forms indicating number and tense, etc. Such classes contain relatively few items and the addition of new members is rather rare. They constitute closed classes. Considering the formal criteria, we can distinguish between phonological words (e.g. /fʌɪndz/), constituents of the phonological hierarchy and orthographic words (e.g. finds), units which in writing are bounded by spaces on both sides[9]. The Oxford English Dictionary's account of the vocabulary of English recognizes a fundamental distinction between words that belong to the common core of the language, small in number but of high-frequency and those that belong to particular specialist sub-sets, high in number but low in frequency, being restricted in their contexts of use. In fact, this distinction may apply not only between words, but also between the meanings of a single word. A word may have meanings belonging to the common core and other meanings that are part of a specialist vocabulary. For instance, proof has specialist meanings in law, maths,logic, printing and engraving(Collins English Dictionary 1986:1225). Thus, we may speak of core and fringe or extended vocabulary. Core vocabulary typically is consistent from one person to another, across ages, across environments, and across activities. Extended vocabulary typically is specific to particular environments and activities. Total communication requires the use of both core and extended vocabulary. From the historical perspective we may discuss about several strata in the structure of the English vocabulary. Hence the classification is based on the etymological criterion.Lipka refers to it as the temporal dimension of the vocabulary. There is the Latin-Greek strata (words like: mint, dish, cheese), the Scandinavian strata (word like: they, them, skin, ill, take) and the French strata (words like: country, minister, parliament, noble). Some of the words in the various strata became archaic in time and are rarely used at present, others are part of the core vocabulary. Finally, Lipka offers an illustration of the structure of the English lexicon, a synchronic survey based on a diagram given in the introduction of the Shorter Oxford Dictionary of English[10]. The representation starts from the assumption that the English vocabulary contains a large, central area which is common to all media, styles and social classes. It is symbolized by COMMON and it is equivalent to Quirk's common core[11]; it is present in all varieties of English. Words like come, father, chair, good are part of this area. Above and below COMMON there are the neighbouring areas of LITERARY and COLLOQUIAL. They are further connected with other areas of the vocabulary, related in content. The literary vocabulary contains scientific, foreign and archaic words, like blasé. The colloquial vocabulary contains dialectal and vulgar elements, as well as word from slang and technical language. We must add that sometimes slang is used for special languages of specific groups, like army slang, navy slang. In this sense, there are no clear boundaries between technical language and slang. The radially disposed areas merge and interpenetrate. The radial lines connect the central and the peripheral areas of the vocabulary. The further we go to the periphery, the more we move away from the common vocabulary. Origin of words in the English lexicon |Over the course of its development the English language has been influenced by the other languages. According to the measure of the influence | |we distinguish major and minor influences on the development of the English language. | | | |Major Influences | | | |Celtic | |The number of celticisms in English is small (about a dozen), as the subjugated Celtic tribes had to learn the language of their Germanic | |conquerors. Place names are the main sphere where old Celtic words can be found (Avon, Thames, London, Dover, etc.). | | | |Roman | |The first Roman occupation was led by Caesar in 55 BC. By the year 140 AD the whole Britain (except for the northernmost of Scotland) was held | |by Romans. The occupation of the country by Romans lasted till the fall of Roman Empire (410 AD).We can find a few words in Modern English | |which have their origin in Latin from the times of the Great Roman Empire (wall – vallum, street – via strata, chester – castra). | | | |Scandinavian | |The years 750 – 1050 are known as The Viking Age of England. Scandinavians conquered the North and East of England. Although the Scandinavians | |were peaceful colonists their influence upon the language was strong. The words of Scandinavian origin may be found not only among place names | |(-beck, -brick), surnames (-son, -sen) but also within the words from common, everyday life (window, fellow, husband, sister, sky, happy, ill, | |etc.). The most important Scandinavian word is they. | | | |Norman and French | |The Norman period began by the Battle of Hastings (1066), and lasted nearly 300 years. Speech, habits, customs, culture were influenced by | |Normans. Consequently the main spheres where the words of Norman origin can be found are: | |1. Administration (state, reign, parliament, etc.) | |2. Titles of nobility (baron, prince, princess, etc.) | |3. Military (war, peace, army, captain, etc.) | |4. Law (justice, judge, prison, etc.) | |5. Economy and trade (money, tax, rent, etc.) | |6. Religion (religion, pray, service, etc.) | |7. Housing (city, village, palace, etc.) | |8. Culinary (pork, beef, veal, boil, etc.) | |9. Occupations, crafts (carpenter, painter, tailor, etc.) | | | | | |Latin and Greek | |The first period of Latin influence was during the Roman occupation. | |The second wave of the influence came with the christianization of the country and enriched the English vocabulary with words such as : angel, | |altar, candle, minister, nun, organ, pope, psalm, etc. | |The third wave dated to the 14th, 15th, and 16th centuries – the period of New Learning, when Greek and Latin were established as the main | |languages of learning, science, and culture. Not only the vocabulary was under their influence, but also the grammar system (single negation), | |and stylistics. | Minor Influences Dutch The contact with the Dutch language was mediated by the political, commercial, and cultural contacts; thus the main spheres were maritime terminology (dock, gin, commodore, etc.), and terminology of drawing and painting (sketch, landscape, etc.). Italian Main spheres are business (bank, risk, bankrupt, etc.), music, and architecture. Others Spanish, German, Russian, Czech, Indian, Japanese, Red Indian etc. Bratu Ioana , MTI, an I ----------------------- [1] http://web.archive.org/web/19990429232804/www.sil.org/ethnologue/top100.html [2] Jackson, H., Ze Amvela, E. – Words, Meaning and Vocabulary, An Introduction to Modern English Lexicology, 2004, London, p.144 [3] Lipka, Leonhard, English lexicology : lexical structure, word semantics & word formation, Tubingen-Narr, 2002 [4] Lipka, Leonhard, English lexicology : lexical structure, word semantics & word formation, Tubingen-Narr, 2002, p. 12 [5] http://www.merriam-webster.com/ [6] http://www.yourdictionary.com/passive-vocabulary [7] http://www.yourdictionary.com/passive-vocabulary [8] Lipka, L. English lexicology: lexical structure, word semantics & word-formation, Tubingen-Narr, 2002, p.14 [9] Bauer, L. (2000). "Word." In: "Morphology.", edited by Geert Booij, Christian Lehmann, and Joachim Mugdan. ISBN: 9783110111286 [10] Lipka, L. English lexicology: lexical structure, word semantics & word-formation, Tubingen-Narr, 2002, p.17 [11] Quirk and Greenbaum, University Grammar of English, 1973, Longman 1 ff.