Stress

Answers to unit 6 1. Explain in your own words what you understand stress is. Include examples of stress and the mental effects of stress. Some stress is good for you it keeps you alert and protects you in times of danger or when you need to think or act fast. It is normal to feel stressed about exams as it can help to keep you focussed. Prolonged or unwanted stress can be harmful. Stress can have many effects on an individual; research has shown that stress is associated with various illnesses, including heart attacks and the common cold. One reason for this is that stress generally reduces the ability of the immune system to fight off invaders such as bacteria and viruses. Stress can also interfere with your sleep, your ability to do your job and coping with the basic day to day life. When psychologists talk about stress they refer to the causes of stress reactions, “Stressors” or to the effects of stress reactions on our physical and mental functioning. The term stressor is used to refer to demands which throw the body out of balance and force it to respond. Examples of stressors are factors like work overload, life changes, daily hassles and noise. Psychologists are interested in the causes of stress and the ways in which stress affects us. Stress management is very important in today’s very busy and stressful lives. The term stress was introduced into psychology by Hans Selye. He was the first researcher to conduct detailed studies of the psychological changes that take place under conditions of short term and long term stress. Much of his research was based on experiments with animals exposing them to a variety of stressors, for example, bacterial infections, toxins, physical restraint and extreme heat and cold. Based on his results, he argued that all stressors produce much the same reaction, the same general bodily response – the GAS. Hans Selye 1956 study GAS, or General Adaptation Syndrome represents the body’s defence against stress. Selye suggested that our responses to stress are universal, such as we all have the same pattern of physiological responses. These responses include the release of stress hormones for example, adrenaline, release of glucose from the liver, rapid heartbeat, breathlessness and increased blood supply to the muscles. In other words, when placed under stress we go right into the fight or flight mode. Selye defined stress as “the individuals physiological response, mediated largely by the autonomic nervous system (ANS) and the endocrine system, to any demands made on the individual” He proposed there are three stages in the General Adaptation Syndrome – Alarm, Resistance and exhaustion. The Alarm stage, when an arousal response is activated, the ANS produces high levels of adrenaline and other adrenal hormones such as steroids to prepare the body for “fight or flight”. There is a brief initial shock phase when the blood pressure and muscle tension drop. Resistance to the stressor is reduced but this is quickly followed by the counter shock phase when the body’s physiological defences swing into action. The Resistance stage, when the body is apparently coping with the stressor, the ANS returns to normal but the body continues to use its physiological resources to resist the effects of the stressor. During this stage there is more careful use of the body’s resources and there is also the use of coping strategies for example, denying the situation is stressful. In the exhaustion stage, the physiological symptoms become depleted and ineffective and stress related illnesses for example high blood pressure, asthma and heart disease become more likely. Hans Selye also found that if a second source of stress was introduced during the exhaustion stage, it could have devastating consequences for the health of the individual. In 1975, Selye published a model dividing stress into eustress and distress. Eustress is commonly used to mean the positive effects, for example where stress enhances function physical or mental. Distress is commonly used to mean the negative effects for example, persistent stress that is not resolved through coping or adaptation. The difference between experiences which result in distress or eustress is determined by the difference between an experience real or imagined, personal expectations and resources to cope with the stress. Alarming experiences either real or imagined can trigger a stress response. However Lazarus (1982) points out that the same event may not be seen as equally stressful by all people. Some people find flying very stressful whereas others really enjoy it. It is the meaning of the event, how we perceive it that affects our reactions to it. This process is Appraisal and this can be further divided into Primary Appraisal (The person assesses the situation to identify potential threats or demands) and Secondary Appraisal (the person assesses their ability to cope with a threatening situation). Stress has an effect on the immune system and the study of psychological factors, especially stress and their effects on the immune system is called Psychoneuroimmunology. Stressful events have been linked to several infectious illnesses including Herpes, Influenza and The Epstein-Barr virus. Cohen et al (1993) investigated the role of general life stress on vulnerability to the common cold virus. The study took 394 healthy volunteers who completed questionnaires on the number of stressful life events they had experienced in the previous year. They also rated their degree of stress and their level of negative emotions such as depression. The three scores were combined into what Cohen et al called a Stress Index. The participants were then exposed to the common cold virus leading to 82% becoming infected with the virus. After 7 days the number of participants whose infection developed into clinical colds was recorded. The findings were that the chance of developing a cold, failing to fight off the viral infection was significantly correlated with the stress index scores. Cohen et al concluded that life stress and negative emotions reduce the effectiveness of the immune system leaving participants less able to resist viral infections. Whenever I suffer a long bout of stress I end up with mouth ulcers and psoriasis on my feet which really need medicating to help them to heal I also get unexplained aches and pains especially in my stomach. Also I get very tired and find it hard to keep going on the most mundane things. Luckily I have a family and they don’t let me stop and wallow in self pity and they always make you feel life is worth getting up for and living. Another example of stress is in the workplace. Johansson et al (1978) did a study into work stressors and stress-related illnesses. The aim was to investigate whether work stressors such as repetitiveness, machine-regulated pace of work and high levels of responsibility increase stress related physiological arousal and stress related illness. The researchers identified a high-risk group of 14 finishers in a Swedish sawmill. Their job was to finish off the wood at the last stage of processing timber. The work was machine- paced, isolated, very repetitive yet highly skilled, and the finishers’ productivity determined the wage rates for the entire factory. The finishers were compared with a low risk group of 10 cleaners whose work was varied more self-paced, and allowed more socialising with other workers. Levels of stress-related hormones, adrenaline and noradrenaline in the urine were measured on work days and rest days and records were kept of stress-related illness and absenteeism. The study found that the high risk group of 14 finishers secreted more stress hormones on work days than on rest days and higher levels than the control group. The high risk group also showed significantly higher levels of stress-related illness such as headaches and higher levels of absenteeism than the low risk group of cleaners. The conclusion to this study was that a combination of work stressors, especially repetitiveness, machine pacing of working and high levels of responsibility lead to long term physiological arousal. This in turn leads to stress-related illness and absenteeism. If employers want to reduce illness and absenteeism in their workforce, they need to find ways of reducing these work stressors, for example by introducing variety into employees work and by allowing them to experience some sense of control over the pace of their work. There have been many studies into stress in the workplace since Johansson et al. 2 Explain two psychological reactions to stress. When an individual is in an ongoing stressful situation, emotional reactions can take place the most common being Anxiety, Anger, Aggression and Depression. Anxiety This is the first response to a situation that is seen to be threatening. Anxiety is described by terms such as worry, apprehension, tension and fear. We all experience anxiety in varying degrees throughout our lives. Anxiety is usually characterised as either normal or neurotic depending on whether the individuals reaction is appropriate to the situation that caused it or not. Normal anxiety also known as objective anxiety is adaptive, it motivates the person to deal with the harmful situation. Neurotic anxiety on the other hand is out of proportion to the threat imposed and often reduces the person’s ability to cope, one example is stage fright. Freud viewed objective anxiety as a realistic response to danger, synonymous with fear. He believed neurotic anxiety stems from unacceptable internal impulses that the individual is trying to control. The person is not aware of the reason for their anxiety as these impulses are unconscious impulses. Sometimes a person may react with intense anxiety to a situation that others view as only mildly stressful; we assume that the source of that reaction is associated more with internal feeling than with an external stressor. It is also suggested that people experience anxiety whenever they encounter a situation that is beyond their control. It may be a new situation that we have to adapt to within our lives or an uncertain situation that we have to fit into the way we see our world. It seems that when things happen beyond our control and the feeling of helplessness are central to our experience of anxiety. Anger/Aggression Anger is a common reaction to stressful situations and may lead to aggression. Children can often become angry and can show aggressive behaviour when they are frustrated. The frustration-aggression hypothesis assumes that when a person is stopped from reaching their goal, an aggressive drive is induced which motivates their behaviour to injure whatever is causing the frustration. Research has shown that aggression is not an inevitable response to frustration; it is only one of them. For example children will attack each other if one child takes a toy off another, the second child will then attack the first in order to try and get the toy back. Adults express their aggression verbally rather than physically exchanging insults rather than blows. It is not always possible to direct aggression toward the source of frustration as the sources sometimes not so easily defined. The person then doesn’t know what to attack but has all this anger to unleash and looks to find something or someone on which to vent these feelings. This can be dangerous if the object or person responsible is more powerful also this aggressive action may be directed toward an innocent person. For example someone reprimanded at work may go home and take it out on his family. 3. What is the Internal Locus of Control' Locus of control refers to an individual’s perception about the underlying main causes of events in his or her life. Some may believe that your destiny is controlled by yourself or by external forces such as fate or God. This concept was developed by Julian Rotter in the 1950’s, the full name being Locus of Control of Reinforcement. In giving it this name, Rotter was bridging behavioural and cognitive psychology. His view was that behaviour was largely guided by “reinforcements” (rewards and punishments) and that through contingencies such as rewards and punishments, individuals came to hold beliefs about what causes their actions. These beliefs, in turn, guide what kinds of attitudes and behaviours people adopt. This understanding of Locus of Control is consistent, for example, with Philip Zimbardo, a famous psychologist: “A locus of control orientation is a belief about whether the outcomes of ou actions are contingent on what we do (internal control orientation) or on events outside our personal control (external control orientation).” (Zimbardo 1985) Thus, locus of control is referred to having one continuous dimension, ranging from external to internal. External Locus of Control is where the individuals believe that their behaviour is guided by fate, lick or other external circumstances. Internal Locus of Control is where the individual believes that their behaviour is guided by their personal decisions and efforts. It seems to be psychologically healthy to perceive that one has control over those thigs which one is capable of influencing. In more simplistic terms, a more internal locus of control is generally seen as desirable. Having internal locus of control can also be referred to as “self determination” or “personal control”. Research has found that males tend to be more internal than females, as people get older they tend to become more internal than people higher up in organisational structures tend to be more internal. (Mamlin, Harris & Case 2001). It is important to understand that lapsing in the overly simplistic view that internal is good and external is bad, there are important complexities to be considered. For example, internals can be psychologically unhealthy and unstable. An internal orientation usually needs to be matched by competence, self efficacy and opportunity so that the person is able to successfully experience the sense of personal control and responsibility. Overly internal people who lack competence, efficacy and opportunity can become neurotic, anxious and depressed. In other words, internals need to have realistic sense of their circle of influence in order to experience success. Externals can lead easy going , relaxed, happy lives. Despite these cautions, psychological research has found that people with a more internal locus of control seem to be better off for example, they seem to be higher achievers and get better jobs. But that doesn’t mean that maybe environmental circumstances such as privilege and disadvantage cause locus of control beliefs or do the beliefs cause the situation. Sometimes locus of control is seen as a stable underlying personality construct but this may be misleading since the theory and research indicates that the locus of control is largely learned. There is evidence showing that to some extent, locus of control is a response to circumstances. Some psychological and educational interventions have been found to produce shifts towards internal locus of control for example, outdoor education programmes; (Hans 2000; Hattie, Marsh Neill & Richards 1997) 4. List four positive coping mechanisms where cognitive control is used to combat stress. Coping mechanisms are conscious attempts to adapt to stress and anxiety in a positive and constructive way unlike the ego defence mechanisms which involve distortion of reality or self deception which may be helpful in the short term but as long term solutyions to stress they are unhealthy and undesirable. Coping mechanisms use thoughts and behaviours to search for information, help from others, problem solving, establishing goals and objectives. Four coping mechanisms are: Objectivity, this is thinking clearly, separating one thought from another or our feelings from our thoughts. It allows us to Obtain a better understanding of how we think and feel and allows us to evaluate our actions objectively. Logical Analysis: In order to find explanations and make plans to solve our problems, we need to systematically analyse them, based on the realities of the situation. Concentration, this is the ability to set aside any disturbing thoughts and feelings in order to concentrate on the task in hand. Suppression: This is the ability to consciously forget about or hold back any worrying thoughts or feelings until an appropriate time or place. Every person will be anxious or stressed in varying degrees throughout their life and as we are all individuals, each person will have their own coping strategy whether it be one of the coping mechanisms above or the ego defence mechanism. In this day and age, there is a lot of information and groups to help people with most of their problems which are due to stress