Sparta_-_Notes

* The Statue of Leonidas: He is strong, powerful, noble and commands a respect from everyone. He is constructed to be a figure of perfection: the ideal and most desirable figure of a masculine Roman man. He is a model for men to follow, ‘be like him and you will be honourable, worthy etc. He is high and mighty. Leonidas portrayed in the movie: 300 Same sense of power and indestructibility. Ultimate portrayal of the ideal, powerful man. He is leader, protector, example for everyone behind him. Expression on his face is serious, he means business. No time for complaining about the weather. “Don’t f### with me.” Ancient Spartan on Black Pottery: They are the rulers of the land, they have no predators/enemies that phase them, they do want they want. Powerful Tall, dominating – saying that they are in control. Original ‘Leonidas Stone’ Judging from the helmet, he looks important, like a leader. Definition of chest and abdomen muscle suggests he is powerful and fearsome in battle. Common Features: Powerful as a leader Warrior, fearless Indestructibility Ideal model of a man. * * * This is the Spartan Mirage. Write about the Spartan mirage and you will fail. Found in the Peloponnese. People often called Lacedaemonians. Eurotas River is the river that Sparta relies on for fish, fresh water, shellfish etc. Taygetos From Sparta: Rugged hills, brooding, like a natural fortress (how some ancient commentators describe it). It’s cut off from all other city streets by the mountains. If anyone wants to attack Sparta, they must first navigate the Taygetos Mountains. Describe the dominant features of the landscape in Source 1.1 (Picture of Mountains) The source shows a village surrounded by rugged mountain ranges. The village is in a kind of basin, protected by the mountains and surrounded by lush forestry. Explain why Thucydides thought that posterity (future generations) might doubt that Sparta had once been powerful. Thucydides comments that posterity would not believe the might of Sparta because of the city that they lived in. The city was made of a series of “old fashioned” villages and gave “an impression of inadequacy”. Using source 1.3, list the economic resources for which ancient Greece lacked adequate supplies. Wood Food, mostly meat Metals including tin and copper to make bronze As you read Source 1.4, use the map (Source 1.5) to locate as many as possible of the features and places mentioned b Strabo. There are alternative englis spellings of man ancient Greek names so you will need to look for similarities. Fo example, ‘Taenarum’ in source 1.4 is Taenarus in source 1.5. Make a list of these differences. * Delphic Oracle would be induced into a hallucinogenic state using herbs alcohol etc. so that the Gods would speak through the oracle. The oracle was early 20’s, teen girls. Homoioi: Syssitia Army Ekklesia 30 years or older “Similars” – not all equal Hypomeiones Inferiors Perioikoi Helots INFERIORS: Parthenai: Spartans, but not an elite. Mudbloods Child of an unmarried Spartan women and a Helot Tresantes Loss of full status due to battle cowardice – moved from Homooi to inferior Mothax Non Spartan ‘playmate’ Went through Agoge but not a Spartan Possibly Perioikoi or Helot Neodamodeiss Who were the Perioikoi and what were they responsible for' Eunomia = good order * * * Agoge: * Total loyalty to the state – Eunomia – fear of Helot revolt * 1. After birth, babies inspected by the Ephors – poor quality babies killed. High female death rate * 2. 7 years old the agoge starts * * Boys 7-12 wore a tunic ‘chiton’ – short hair, bare foot * “little boy” * 8 rhobies * 9 Promikizemenos * 20 mikichizomenos * propais * the adolescent: Pampais * 16-20: Eiren * Sphaireis (ballplaers) – transition to adulthood and army service * * Women In Sparta * Women in Sparta were not considered citizens. They did not enjoy equality with men in Sparta, although they were more privileged than in other states such as Athens. * They were restricted to * * Plutarch ‘The Spartan Sayings’ – Says Lykurgus banned perfume and dyeing (Mirage of equality) * Archaeology reveals cones, mirrors, hairpins, beauty products in graves * Alkman – Poet (7th – “beautiful purple cloth”, snake bracelet, Hold head bands * * Ivory Broach – soldiers on horseback * * Keepers of the Spartan Spirit * Letting man know when they fall short of the ‘ideals’ of the Homoioi The Geographical Setting ·      End of a small but very fertile river plain about 14km long ·      River Eurotas – fresh water supply ·      Spartan territory ran to the sea at Gytheon, 46km away on the Lakonian gulf ·      Impressive mountain ranges to the east (Mt. Parnon) and west (Mt. Taygetos), providing Sparta with a natural defensive barrier ·      Various natural resources including limestone, marble, wood, iron, barley, olive trees, 
grapes, cheese from goats, wool from sheep, meat from pigs, honey from bees, leather items
from animal hides, horses, wild animals such as boars, seafood, murex mollusc gave purple-
red dye ·      Three tribes ·      Four villages (komai): Limnai, Pitana, Kynosoura, Mesoa – joined together into one city state in 9th Century BC ·      Polis grew over a number of small hills, one ridge developed as acropolis ·      No fortifications until 4th Century BC... completed in 2nd Century BC ·      Temples, shrines, theatre, agora   Social Structure and Political Organisation ·      Plato could not decide if the Spartan government was a democracy or a tyranny, Aristotle
described it as a happy mix of democracy and oligarchy, while Cicero called it a mixed
constitution   • Lycurgus and the Great Retro ·      Lycurgus traditionally seen as the one who introduced the constitution – Plutarch
 ·      Historians such as H. Michel and A, Andrewes strongly doubt his existence
 ·      Travelled to Apollo's shrine at Delphi and received a prose poem known as the Great Rhetra which gave abstract advice on what the constitution should be – Plutarch ·      Mentions Kings and gerousia but not ephors – Xenophon, Plato, Aristotle suggest they were put into place later to curb the unfettered power of the kings and the gerousia ·      Plutarch quotes the Rider, and additional clause to be added to the Great Rhetra which limits the power of the ekklesia so that they cannot propose new motions or change the wording of others ·      Historian David Ogden suggests that the Rider is actually the first document and the Great Rhetra is a more developed form of that   • The two Kings (Herodotus lists their rights and privileges) ·      One came from the Agiad family
 ·      One came from the Eurypontid family
 ·      They were the chief priests of the state and kept oracles from Delphi
 ·      They were war leaders but only one at a time led the army on Campaign
 ·      They were given special meats from the sacrifices and double rations in mess
 ·      They had limited judicial powers
 ·      They were members of the gerousia
 ·      They had a voice in foreign affairs debates
 ·      They were supervised by the ephors
 ·      They swore an oath to the ephors that they would uphold the law
◦ ·      They could be put on trial and deposed
 ·      Their political power appears limited   • The gerousia (Council of Elders) ·      Comprised the twenty-eight gerontes and the two Kings
 ·      The gerontes had to be “the best and most deserving men past 60 years old” – Plutarch
 ·      Elected for life by the ekklesia via acclamation – Plutarch
 ·      Aristotle says the method of election is childish and also that it is unwise to have senile old men in such positions of power ·      Wide judicial power in serious criminal cases involving death, exile or disgrace
 ·      They could put the kings on trial
 ·      They proposed laws and framed the wording of legislation to be approved or rejected by the ekklesia ·      Oligarchic element in constitution ·      Lykourgos' attempt to limit power of Kings – Plutarch   • The five ephors – Aristotle ·      Democratically elected by the citizens in the ekklesia ·      Supervised the kings on campaign during war and often appear to have been more powerful than the king ·      Chief officials of the state
 ·      Influential in deciding foreign policy and met foreign envoys
 ·      Wide-ranging police powers over the daily lives of citizens and helots
 ·      Presided over meetings of the ekklesia
 ·      Worked closely with the gerousia and attended court cases
 ·      Swore an oath each month to uphold the powers of the Kings provided the Kings acted lawfully ·      Seen as effectively a tyranny by Aristotle and Xenophon because of their near unlimited power   • The ekklesia ·      Comprised all males over 30 years old who were citizens
 ·      Met once a month, outdoors
◦Usually voted by acclamation but could also physically divide into different groups according to Thucydides ·      Could not debate issues, change the wording of motions, start consideration of new issues or propose new laws or policies ·      Elected 5 ephors each year and elected men to fill vacancies in the gerousia
◦Appointed generals and admirals
◦If the ephors disapproved of a motion passed by the ekklesia they could refuse to proclaim it   • Spartiates ·      Males over the age of 30 years who had completed their education and training and enjoyed citizenship of the polis of Sparta ·      They had to have legitimate membership of one of the three Spartan tribes ·      Citizenship was only achieved after successful completion of a training regime, and it was conditional on acceptance as a member of a military mess ·      Citizenship could be lost because of cowardice or dishonorable actions   • Perioikoi ·      Were neither Spartan citizens nor slaves
◦“men who live in houses around”
◦Generally assumed to be a remnant of the pre-Dorian population that was not enslaved at the time of the Spartan conquest of the land. ·      Described as 'half-citizens' because they served as hoplites and were considered to be part of the Lakedaimonian army but did not have the same level of training ·      They were subject to taxation and were supervised by the ephors ·      Were presumably the only ones involved in craftwork by the 5th Century BC due to the laws of Lykourgos   • Inferiors ·      A number of different terms to indicate inferiors ·      Mothakes were playmate of Spartan children in the agoge who did not go on to become citizens ·      Parthenai means children of maidens and it has been speculated that they may be the offspring of illegitimate unions between Spartan women and helots ·      Xenophon uses the term hypomeiones but does not define it
 ·      Tresentes were soldiers who had shown cowardice in battle
 ·      Neodamodeis were former helots whose military service had been rewarded with freedom but not citizenship   • Helots ·      Generally thought to be serfs, descendants of the original enslaved populations of Lakonia and Messenia ·      Paul Cartledge describes them as “an unfree people not a random collection of individually owned slaves” ·      Clear distinction between helots which were owned by the State and douloi who could be bought and sold on the market ·      Sparta was based on a state-run serfdom — helots worked the agricultural land ·      It is unknown how many there were, but they outnumbered the Spartans to a degree that caused Sparta considerable concern and anxiety and that they took active measures to terrorise them ·      Were required to perform army service as servants and combatants
◦Could be given freedom as a reward for military service (see Inferiors)
◦Fear of helot revolt kept the Spartans in a high state of preparedness and meant the army could not be away for long for fear of a revolt in their absence ·      Were terrorised by the krypteia, the secret police, and new ephors would often arbitrarily declare war against them as a display of power   • Role of the Spartan Army ·      Made up of hoplites — heavily armed infantry who fought as a phalanx ·      The phalanx was vulnerable from the rear and along its flanks so needed skirmishers or cavalry for protection ·      According to Thucydides in the 5th Century BC: -       Phalanxes were made up of 8 rows -       4 rows to a platoon, 4 platoons to a company, 4 companies to a battalion -       Army comprised of 5 or 7 battalions ·      According to Xenophon in the 4th Century BC: -       Phalanxes were made up of 12 rows -       2 rows to a platoon, 2 platoons to a company, 2 companies to a battalion, 4 battalions to a regiment -       Army comprised of 6 regiments ·      King in battle had an elite force of 300 men – Thucydides and Herodotos ·      Also special detachments such as cavalry, light-armed troops, peltasts who would pelt the enemy with missiles ·      STRENGTHS -       Hoplite phalanx – strength and reliability
 -       High level of preparedness – discipline and training
 -       Ability to raise other forces from perioikoi and helots ·       WEAKNESSESS -       Lacked sufficient cavalry to protect hoplites
 -       Training and tactics were inflexible
▪Vulnerable to archers, slingers and javelin throwers
 -       Displayed a lack of skill in attacking fortified positions and cities
 -       Manpower shortages, esp. by 4th Century BC ·      Idealised view of Spartan army presented by Herodotos who also reports that not every Spartan soldier lived up to such high ideals ·      Once of the 300 Spartans in the Battle of Thermopylai ran away to avoid battle and was shunned by society – he did, however, regain his honour by fighting and dying bravely in the Battle of Plataia ·      An officer in the Spartan army during the Battle of Plataia refused to stage a strategic withdrawal as commanded by Pausanias – he was forced to move or be left behind ·      Herodotos also records the Spartans as not being able to take a Persia defensive position when Athens could and also shows them as unable to mount an attack on the walls of Athens ·      During the Peloponnesian War, a group of Spartiates surrendered to Athenian forces, dealing a huge blow to Spartan pride and morale ·      Poetry of Tyrtaios from the 7th Century BC intended to inspire soldiers and has given us a good picture of the fighting methods of the Spartan army   • Syssitia ·      Syssition was the mess – designed to give daily expression to the concept of Spartan equality and encouraged fellowship and unity ·      All Spartiates were required to be members of a syssition ·      All mess members had to agree to the admission of a new member and failure to gain admission would mean social exclusion and disgrace ·      Daily attendance at the evening meal was obligatory – only a hunting expedition or pressing religious duties were considered to be acceptable excuses ·      Food was provided out of the monthly contributions of mess members: -       77 litres of barley, olive oil and about 39 litres of wine, 3 kilos of cheese, 1.5 kilos of figs, the produce coming from their own estates worked by the helots -       A small money contribution, in the currency of the island of Aigina, to buy fish or meat -       Bounty from the hunt ·      Drunkenness was considered shameful and the older men had to ensure that the meals didn't degenerate into drinking parties ·      Occasionally, helots were brought in and made drunk in order to demonstrate how shameful it was to be unable to stand because of the effects of wine. ·      When drunk, helots were humiliated by being forced to sing bawdy songs and dance obscene dances   • Krypteia ·      Spartan secret police ·      Plutarch states that every year, the krypteia would choose the most sensible and well regarded of the young men to go out into the country, armed with daggers and supplies, in order to hide until nightfall when they would ambush and kill any helots on the roads ·      Paul Cartledge argues that the principal aim of these raids “was to murder selected troublemaking helots and spread terror among the rest”   • Agoge ·      Agoge means 'bringing up' – education system of Sparta ·      Through education, the young boys of Sparta were socialised an inculcated with the values of their society ·      Children who were weak or sickly looking at birth were left in a chasm to die ·      When boys turned 7 they were brought to the barracks, organised into unit and subdivided into packs of six, each led by the most capable boy ·      From the age of twelve, the adolescent Spartan male took an older male lover, chosen from the young men aged 20-30 years – Pederasty ·      The adolescent would try to win and maintain the attention of his lover by excelling at sport, or by displays of courage and endurance ·      The older man would seek to be a role model of the perfect Spartan
 ·      Young boys 7-12 wore a tunic, had their hair cut short, and walked around barefoot
 ·      Between 12 and 20 boys were permitted to wear a cloak – hiding their hands underneath it while walking in public ·      At age 20, a boy became a man — playing a violent ball game symbolic of their graduation according to Plutarch — and began to grow their hair ·      Lykourgos believed that long hair was a sign of manhood which made men “look taller, more dignified and more terrifying” according to Xenophon ·      Many critic believed that Spartans were not capable of literacy, however Plutarch tells us that of reading and writing Spartans “learned only enough to serve their needs”. ·      Music was an important part of Spartan education – character forming ·      It was believed that listening to music in the Dorian mode would make a Spartan manly and brave and that certain stamping rhythms would encourage and develop a martial attitude in would-be soldiers ·      Spartan boys would have to learn the works of Tyrtaios by heart ·      Flautists accompanied the hoplites to war in order to intimidate the enemy with their shrill music ·      Dancing was incredibly important in Spartan education – one of the most celebrated dances being the Pyrrhic dance which was extremely athletic and included footwork useful to a fighter. ·      Apart from running at the dromos, Spartan youths were trained in boxing, wrestling, throwing the discus and hurling the javelin ·      On occasion, Spartan boys were sent out trekking into the forests to fend for themselves by hunting in order to develop stamina and self-reliance ·      Through the agoge, boys learned what it was to be a Spartan – Plutarch commented that all of their education “was calculated to make them obey commands well, endure hardships and be victorious in battle” ·      Thucydides spoke of the Spartan system as producing a 'state-induced courage” ·      Boys were encouraged to steal but were flogged if they were caught – Plutarch tells a famous story about a Spartan boy and a fox   • Role and Status of Women ·      Women were not citizens, could not participate in the ekklesia, hold political or administrative office or serve in the military ·      There was no conspicuous role for female members of the royal families
 ·      A woman's place was in the home and her most important role was to bear children
 ·      The social life of women was also severely restricted by tradition and custom
 ·      They were subject to their fathers, husbands, and grown-up sons
 ·      Spartan women had a reputation for being promiscuous – sleeping with men other than their husbands in order to produce healthy children ·      Spartan wife-lending is mentioned by Xenophon, Polybius and Plutarch ·      Although infanticide was practiced by parents in various parts of Greece, Spartan mothers had no say in the matter – totally state controlled ·      Girls did not take part in the agoge – staying at home to be educated in those things that were considered to be important for women in Spartan society ·      Females practiced athletics either naked or very scantily clad in public ·      Xenophon tells us that it was believed that Lykourgos had established the custom for women's training and Plutarch even suggests that they participated in foot races, wrestling, discus throwing and javelin hurling ·      The purpose of such intense physical training was to prepare women to bear children ·      When an Athenian woman asked Queen Gorgo, wife of Leonidas I, why it was that Spartan women were the only ones that could control men, she is said to have replied “Because Spartan women are the only ones that give birth to men.” ·      It is assumed that Spartan women had considerable control over the household – particularly in the absence of men who ate at the syssitia ·      There is abundant archaeological evidence for female adornment, despite the claims that Lykourgos forbade it ·      Throughout the Greek world, the wealth of Spartan women was legendary ·      In the 4th Century BC, Aristotle notes that heiresses were numerous at Sparta and that two-fifths of land there was in the hands of women ·      Dowries were supposedly forbidden by Lykourgos but were a common practice away. ·      Keeping the property within a family through the marriage of heiresses to uncles or first cousins was a common practice ·      Herodotus says that the Kings had the right to give an orphaned heiress in marriage in her father had not done so while alive ·      Horse ownership and equestrian sport was an elite activity of wealthy women as well as men and the poet Akman believed that it was flattering to women to compare them to horses and that they, in turn, would know and appreciate the different breeds of horse referred to in his horsey compliments ·      Spartan women were seen to be the most reliable keepers of the Spartan spirit ·      Women would be inclined to select males who conformed to the ideal of courage and obedience that was endorsed by the state when considering marriage ·      Wives were supposed to support their brave men but spurn a husband who was a 'trembler' in battle. ·      Mothers were expected to shun their own sons if they brought the disgrace of cowardice upon the family   The Economy   • Land Ownership ·      Plutarch writes that each newborn boy and future citizen was given an equal plot of land by the state known as a kleros ·      It is thought that the kleros may have been given to a young man once he had completed the agoge ·      There were supposedly 9000 equal kleroi distributed among the citizens ·      Lykourgos is credited with seeking to avoid social and economic inequalities that might lead to social unrest ·      The ideal, clearly admired by Plutarch, is of an equality of land and goods where the only competition between citizens is in striving for virtue ·      For many years this neat picture of kleroi was accepted by scholars but historians now suspect that the kleros is merely part of the myth of equality in Sparta ·      Nowadays many scholars believe a significant land re-distribution occurred in the 3rd Century BC in the time of the kings Agis IV and Kleomenes III. ·      The measures of Agis and Kleomenes were indeed revolutionary and short-lived, however this land re-distribution may have been attributed to Lykourgos to make it seem legitimate. ·      The kleros is a late invention and should not be accepted as factual due to little reliable evidence on the subject ·      The many instances of inequality in Spartan society call into question the very existence of kleroi as the basis for material equality – it would seem that some people had more land and that there were rich and poor Spartiates. ·      Altogether, there is sufficient reason to doubt the existence of kleroi as it is mentioned only by Plutarch who is a late and often unreliable source. ·      Neither Herodotos nor Xenophon nor Aristotle mention the kleroi and no ancient writer claims that they existed in his own day ·      Thomas J. Figueira, on the other hand, argues for a modified kleros model stating that “for the majority of Spartiates c.500, the kleros represented the main component of their assets” ·      The baseline of the Spartan economy was the exploitation of the land in an intensive agriculture ·      It can be assumed that the Spartan agricultural economy produced a surplus that could be traded outside Sparta by boat   • Technology ·      Corinthian style helmet provided protection for head but made it difficult to see and hear
 ·      Upper body protected by a padded corselet worn over a cloth tunic
 ·      Red Spartan cape
 ·      Bronze greaves protected the shins, the lower leg, knee to ankle
 ·      Three metre long thrusting spear
 ·      Round shield emblazoned with the greek letter lambda for Lakedaimon
 ·      Short iron stabbing sword tied to waist
 ·      Spartan metalworkers employed the ancient technology of smelting and casting metals
 ·      Forging technology was hit and miss as the scientific basis of the process was not understood ·      Sometimes a smith would produce a sword with a strength and character that was almost magical – the carbon and carbon monoxide from the charcoal fire was coming into contact with the iron and 'steeling' the sword – only two survive in archaeological record ·      The Spartans had come to dominate the original inhabitants of Lakonia and Messenia through their possession of iron weapons, which were stronger than those of bronze ·      The clay that potters used came from within the area of the city of Sparta itself and is still found along the banks of the river Eurotas ·      In ancient Sparta we have evidence of potteries in the Kynosoura and Mesoa quarters of the town ·      Lakonian pottery was painted with a reddish clay 'slip' rich in iron which turned black in the firing process and made a kind of glaze ·      Details within the outline would be incised to created lines that cut through the area to be black glazed and revealed the clay below ·      Fired using a simple up-draught wood kiln ·      From mistakes and successes, together with a knowledge of the clay and the kiln, remarkable pottery was made in Lakonia ·      A kiln was discovered by the Greek archaeologist Chr. Christou in the Mesoa quarter of the city of Sparta in 1964 and dated to around 600 BC ·      Christou suggested that the large relief amphora found at the site was made there by a group of potters who may have been Spartan citizens   • Economic roles of the perioikoi and helots ·      Under the laws of Lykourgos, Spartiates were forbidden from engaging in craftwork, trade and commerce ·      By the 5th Century BC, presumably only the perioikoi were involved in such activities ·      The helots worked the land and produced agricultural goods for use in trade and to be provided in the syssitia   • Economic exchange ·      According to Plutarch, Lykourgos actively discouraged the Spartans from trading amongst themselves or with other peoples by forbidding the use of all gold or silver coinage ·      Plutarch would have us believe that iron bars were used as a substitute for coinage ·      In early Sparta, coinage was not essential for trade as goods were exchanged in a barter economy ·      The so-called Lykourgan ban on precious metals and the introduction of iron bars is most probably to be dated to the late 6th Century BC ·      The iron bars were heated red hot and then quenched in vinegar making them brittle and useless for refashioning into something of value – this was intended to isolate the Spartan economy ·      It is worth noting that we have not one reference, in any source, of any person using an iron bar in a transaction. On the other hand, we have many instances where Spartans are either using gold or silver coinage or speaking in terms that suggest their use ·      We might doubt that foreign coinage was completely eradicated from Sparta ·      They had diplomatic relations with the Lydian King Kroisos so Lydian gold coins would have been known, but the Spartans most probably used the currency of Aigina ·      The evidence for this is strangely Plutarch for while he claims that Sparta only had Lykourgos' iron currency, he incidentally tells us that mess contributions in Sparta included a small monthly payment in coin for fish or meat ·      Dikaiarkos gives the value as 10 Aiginetan bronze obols ·      Figueira argues that Spartans held secret stocks of precious metals in their homes and as late as the 5th Century BC commonly evaluated goods in terms of the monetary units of Aigina and that these were standard among their allies ·      There are many examples gathered by Figueira from the ancient sources to show that coinage was used ·      Bribes to Spartans were paid in coins and that corrupt officials might hide coins at home ·      Figueira suggests that there were two Spartan economies — the ideal 'white' one and the real 'black' one     Religion, Death and Burial   • Gods and goddesses ·      Zeus was the ruler of Mount Olympus, associated with the sky, the clouds and thunder, symbolised by the eagle and oak tree, the Olympic games, founded in 776 BC were held in his honour ·      The Spartans claimed descent from Herakles, the favourite son of Zeus and the stories of the great man stress his strength, courage and sexual prowess ·      The sun-god Apollo was greatly honoured in Sparta – he had an oracle at Delphi which allegedly provided Sparta with its constitution ·      Artemis, the sister of Apollo, was a birth goddess associated with wild animals and untamed places – she was worshipped as Artemis Orthia in Sparta, probably because her cult was joined with that of an ancient local goddess called Orthia ·      Athena was a 'Guardian of the City' and her temple was decorated with sheets of bronze, giving her the name Athena Chalkioikos – her temple was a place of refuge for those who sought sanctuary from their pursuers ·      Before leaving on a campaign, the King sacrificed to Zeus and if the omens were favourable the army could proceed to the frontier where more sacrifices were made to Zeus and Athena – they carried fire from these sacrifices throughout the entire campaign ·      The Kings were responsible for the safe keeping of all the oracles   • Funerary customs and rituals ·      Plutarch tells us that regulations about Spartan funerary practices were instituted by Lykourgos himself ·      The bodies were buried in the city so that people would grow accustomed to death and not fear it nor be disturbed by dead bodies ·      Nothing was to be buried with a Spartan however archaeological evidence from graves excavated during the period 1991-95 shows that Spartans were occasionally buried with weapons and funerary pottery ·      It was not permitted to inscribe the name of a dead person on their tomb unless it was a man who had died in war or a woman who had died in sacred office ·      Prior to 900 BC, bodies had been buried in a contracted position with a stone for a pillow with other stones carefully placed following the curve of the spine ·      Around 750 BC, bodies were buried in jars – 1906 British archaeologists ·      About 600 BC, burials took the form of cist-graves, lined cavities in the ground and covered by an earth mound – 1964 Chr. Christou ·      From the early 6th Century BC to 2nd Century BC, however, many bodies were buried in monumental two story tombs ·      On the death of a king – Herodotos: -       Horse riders took the news of a king's death all over Lakonia -       Women beat cauldrons as a signal for one man and one woman from each household to put on special mourning clothes -       There were heavy fines for non-compliance
 -       People from all over Lakonia were compelled to attend the funeral
 -       The crowd of mourners at the funeral included the Spartiates and the perioikoi
 -       The men and women being present together
 -       There were communal displays of public grief – men and women struck their foreheads – there was wailing and praise of the deceased king as 'the best ever' -       If the king was killed in war there was a statue made of him and it was carried to the burial on a bier -       There was a ten day period of mourning during which there were no public meetings or elections ·      Pausanias tells us that a tomb was a soldier's reward for valour in battle and that by the 2nd Century AD Sparta was packed with tombs and cenotaphs of the polis' heroes   Cultural Life   • Art ·      Spartan cultural life can be clearly traced through the sequence of Lakonian painted pottery vessels ·      Painted vessels from the 7th Century BC are characterised by geometric decoration – occasionally animal or human figures are depicted but they are always part of a larger decorative scheme ·      Painted vessels from the early 6th Century BC are characterised by the predominance of friezes, decorative bands, made up of animals or birds, or a decorative patterning made up of fish and dolphins ·      Painted vessels from the late 6th Century BC are characterised by a scene or narrative story taken from life or mythology – these decorations are valuable to the historian because they are archaeological sources that record banquets and scenes showing riding, hunting and fighting ·      The carving of ivory and bone was highly developed in Sparta and objects of great beauty were produced in the 7th Century BC ·      The ivory for these objects had to be imported and it was sourced from traders in Syria ·      Archaeologists examining the style of Spartan ivory carvings have commented on what often appears to be a strong artistic influence from the East ·      Used as brooches or pieces of decoration on furniture or boxes ·      Spartans were excellent bronze workers as can be shown from the Grächwil hydria, the Pesaro hydria, the Vix krater and a vast number of smaller works ·      There are many reliefs in limestone and in the marble of Lakonia that have been discovered such as a pyramidal stone with depictions of Menelaos and Helen as well as reliefs of the Dioskouroi – stone sculpture in the round is less common   • Architecture ·      Two temples to Artemis Orthia -       First, 700 BC, was a small structure, long and only 4.5m wide – bricks and wood on a stone foundation with a gabled roof structure -       Second, 580BC, sited over the earlier one with built up land to protect against flooding – R.M. Dawkins concluded that the second temple had Doric columns and a gabled roof with a painted stone lion on top of the pediment ·      Menelaion shrine was a rather small but still monumental building – the earliest of its kind in Lakonia – with a pedimental roof which was tiled with terracottas ·      Early in the 5th Century BC this building was demolished and was rebuilt to a height of 8m with a parapet faced with blue limestone and white marble ·      The Ionian architect Bathykles, who came from Asian Minor, is credited by Pausanias with a massive reconstruction of the already existing shrine of Apollo at Amyklai ·      Pausanias provides a detailed but confusing description of the building, stating that its primary function was to serve as a throne for an ancient cult statue of Apollo ·      Pausanias also mentions various other statues such as two Graces, two Seasons, Echidna, Typhon and a number of Tritons ·      Pausanias notes that the base of the statue of Apollo was shaped like an altar, suggesting a block, in which Hyakinthos was believed to be buried ·      There is not enough surviving material to indicate what the building as a whole actually looked like and while there have been a number of attempts at theoretically
reconstructing what the building looked like based on Pausanias' description, these are
all merely hypotheses   • Writing and Literature ·      Music was a socialising influence because through blending their voices and playing set parts the singers learned to co-operate and fit in with others ·      Music and dancing were important occupations for Spartan soldiers for they were related to hoplite drill and to psychological preparation for battle ·      Tyrtaios, most probably a native Spartan, lived in the second half of the 7th Century BC and wrote poetry that was sung by the men of Sparta in the army ·      His purpose was to teach the young men and boys the correct attitudes as they were endorsed by the state ·      The key virtues that he stresses for the young are courage, discipline and manliness ·      Tyrtaios' poetry has not come down to us complete – it is mostly pieced together from quotations of his lines by other ancient writers ·      Alkman, who lived in the middle of the 7th Century BC, was the first Greek choral poet whose works have come down to us – one tradition says he came from Sardis while others state that he was a Spartan born in Lakonia ·      His lines beautifully evoke the towering mountains of Sparta, the seasons of the year and the twittering of the bloggers... oh I mean birds ·      Alkman was a choir-master who wrote works for girls to sing in their maiden chorus as he accompanied them on the lyre ·      He playfully refers to the choir girls by name and creates a persona for himself within the poem and in this way we are able to see a Spartan poet as he would like to be seen by his audience Exportation of Agriculture - wool - leather - food - perishable goods that cannot be found by archaeologists. Historians then agree with Xenophon and Plutarch who say they did nothing but fight. Spartan Coinage Plutarch: Gold & silver coins banned ‘pelanors’ iron bars used instead Who did Spartan Work' Plutarch – Homoioi didn’t work and had no skilled trades 7th Century pos Messenian conquest Blackglazed pottery & ivory imports Luxury goods (Massimo Nafissi PRE Lykourgan reforms