Scientific_Revolution

Europe experienced diverse perspectives on the world from various people, both men and women. Their new outlook on the world included new philosophical views, scientific discoveries, and government ideas, consequently resulting in a “modern” way of thinking. Influential men and women during this time were Galileo Galilei, Johannes Kepler, John Locke, Denis Diderot, Maria Theresa and Catherine II. Galileo Galilei was an influential astronomer due to his confirmation of the Copernican theory and development of the law of inertia. Galileo studied at the University of Pisa, learning about the Aristotelian view of physics. During his studies, he questioned Aristotle’s discoveries. He proved this theory wrong by conducting experiments, in which he discovered that all objects have the same uniform acceleration. His findings were called the law of inertia. Galileo documented his breakthrough of the law of inertia in his book De Motu. In 1609, Galileo developed his first telescope which magnified objects 20x, unlike other telescopes of the time that magnified up to 3x. With his telescope he was able to see the moon, discover the four satellites of Jupiter, witness supernovas, and observe sun spots. His findings allowed him to confirm the Copernican system, developed by Nicolaus Copernicus, which says the earth and all the other planets revolve around the sun. In present day, people still use Galileo’s discoveries in modern physics and science. Johannes Kepler was a German mathematician and astronomer whose discoveries contributed to the new modern thinking. He studied at the University of Tübingen and later became an assistant for Tycho Brahe. Johannes developed the three laws of planetary motion, which the Copernican theory was the basis of. The first law of planetary motion stated that the orbits of the planets around the sun are elliptical, not circular. The second law that Kepler formulated stated that the planets do not move in a uniform speed in their orbit around the sun. Finally, the third law stated that the period of time it takes a planet to complete an orbit around the sun is related to the distance the planet is from the sun. Kepler’s findings were proved through mathematical equations instead of speculations as well. Kepler wrote De cometis and Harmonice mundi in which he described his third law of planetary motion. Today, people still use Kepler’s three laws of planetary motion in science and astrology. John Locke was an English philosopher who was born in 1632. He was the eldest child and only survivor of children in his family of tradesmen and londholders. Later, Locke attended school at Christ Church College where he studied medicine. Many of Locke’s philosophies intermingled with his experiences in science. John Locke developed the theory that all humans learn from experience in his Essay Concerning Human Understanding in 1690. Locke describes his idea that humans are born resembling a blank sheet and are shaped into the person they are from their environment and experience. He also wrote Second Treatise of Civil Government in 1690. In this composition, John expressed his belief that the reason people set up civil government in order to protect the rights of life, liberty, and property. Locke believed that these were the basic rights for all men. Today countries such as the United States of America use John Locke’s philosophies for a basis of government. Denis Diderot was a French philosopher who was born in 1713. Diderot grew up as the eldest of seven children. His father was prosperous master-cutler and his mother was from a family of tanners. Denis was taught by the Jesuits, and was planning to have a career in law, but decided on another career path. Like many other philosophes, Diderot believed in the reformation and improvement of the human mind. His main goal was to improve humanity through secular thinking and forming basic rights for men. Denis developed the Encyclopedia. This book contained articles that reflected different topics and beliefs. The Encyclopedia was used as an attempt to secularize minds of people and to improve humanity. Although this book was illegal in France, Diderot still published the Encyclopedia to allow people to read it and be educated. Maria Theresa was an enlightened ruler. She was born in 1717 as the princess of Austria. Her father was the Holy Roman Emperor Charles VI. To be certain that Maria Theresa would take the thrown, Charles VI developed the pragmatic Sanction in 1713 so that even a female heir could succeed the Hapsburg land. After her father’s death Maria Theresa took over the Austrian Empire. During her reign, Maria Theresa brought many new enlightened thoughts into government. To spread these enlightened ideas, Maria Theresa had three goals to reform the Austrian government. The first goal was to limit the papacy’s influence in politics. The second goal was to strengthen the central bureaucracy through governmental reforms. Finally, Maria Theresa’s last goal was to improve the agricultural population by reducing the lord’s power over serfs. Maria Theresa also enlightened Austria by making Vienna, the country’s capital, a center of music and arts. Catherine the II, also known as Catherine the Great, was born in 1729 as the German princess of Anhalt- Zerbst. Her father was Prince Christian August of Anhalt- Zerbst and her mother was Princess Johanna Elizabeth of Holstein-Gottorp. As a child Catherine studied German, French, history, music and Lutheranism. When she was fifteen she went to Russia and later married the Czar Peter. After a military coup against her husband, Catherine took over the throne of Russia. During her reign Catherine tried to westernize Russia. Catherine hired Western European architects, sculptors, musicians, and intellectuals. She created a legislative commission to develop a new and improved code of laws as well. Along with the reformation, Catherine restricted the practice of torture and tried to improve the education in Russia. She also restored the government by giving local governments more strength. As an enlightened leader, Catherine was influenced by the philosophes in Western Europe and became in contact with some. When Denis Diderot’s the Encyclopedia was banned from France, Catherine offered to have the book published in Russia then send it back to France. She and Voltaire also wrote letters to each other. Catherine had gained support from enlightened thinkers and the philosophes for her efforts to Westernize and enlighten Russia. The modern way of thinking came about through scientific discovery, new governmental ideas and philosophical views. Women contributed by running salons where philosophes gathered, and female leaders, such as Maria Theresa and Catherine II, contributed by enlightening their kingdoms and keeping in contact with the philosophes. Scientific discoveries disproved medieval theories and resulted in new theories of the world. Philosophes secularized thinking and attempted to educate the public with their writings. All of these components led the way to a “modern” era. Bibliography Galileo Galilei: Wild, Megan. Galileo Bibliography. The Galileo Project, n.d. Web. 25 Nov. 2011. . McKay, John P., Bennett D. Hill, and John Buckler. A History of Western Society. eighth edition. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2006. 598,599. Print. Johannes Kepler: "Mathematician born in Weil der Stadt." Johannes Kepler. N.p., April 2009 . Web. 25 Nov 2011.