Roman_and_Grrek_Culture

Roman’ Culture Greek’s Culture THE ROMAN MONARCHY to 509 B.C. According to tradition, early Rome was ruled by KINGS elected by the people.  The king's executive power was conferred by a POPULAR ASSEMBLY made up of all arms-bearing citizens.  The king turned for advice to a council of nobles, called the SENATE.  Each senator had lifelong tenure and the members of this group and their families constituted the PATRICIAN class.  The other class of Romans, the PLEBEIANS (commoners) included small farmers, artisans, and many clients (dependents of patrician landowners). In return for a livelihood, the clients gave their patrician patrons political support in the ASSEMBLY The POLIS (city-state) consisted of a city and its surrounding plains and valleys. The nucleus of the polis was the elevated, fortified site called the ACROPOLIS where people could take refuge from attack. With the revival of commerce, a TRADING CENTER developed below the acropolis. EARLY REPUBLIC 509-133 B.C.  In 509 B.C., according to tradition, the PATRICIANS expelled the last Etruscan king and established a REPUBLIC.  The power to rule was transferred to two new officials called CONSULS. Elected annually from the patrician class, the consul exercised their power in the interests of that class  Four major TYPES OF GOVERNMENT evolved in ancient Greece: Monarchy (rule of a king) limited by an aristocratic council and a popular assembly.  Oligarchy (rule of the few) arising when the aristocratic council ousted the king and abolished the assembly.  Tyranny (rule by one who ruled without legal authority) riding to power on the discontent of the lower classes.  Democracy (rule of the people), the outstanding political achievement of the Greeks. PLEBEIAN STRUGGLE FOR EQUAL RIGHTS  For more than two centuries following the establishment of the Republic, the plebeians struggled for political and social equality.  Outright civil war was averted by the willingness of the patricians to compromise.  Much of the plebeians’ success in this struggle was also due to their tactics of collective action and to their having organized a corporate group within the state.  The unofficial body was known as the PLEBEIAN COUNCIL.  It was presided over by plebeian officials called TRIBUNES, whose job was to safeguard the interests of the plebeians and to negotiate with the consuls and the Senate.  The advancement of the PLEBEIANS during the early Republic took two main lines: the safeguarding of their FUNDAMENTAL RIGHTS and the progressive enlargement of their share of POLITICAL POWER. ATHENIAN DEMOCRACY  DIRECT PARTICIPATION was the key to Athenian DEMOCRACY. In the Assembly, every male citizen was not only entitled to attend as often as he pleased but also had the right to DEBATE, offer AMENDMENTS, and vote on PROPOSALS. Every man had a say in whether to declare WAR or stay in PEACE. Basically any thing that required a government decision, all male citizens were allowed to participate in. Although DEMOCRACY was an outstanding achievement, it is important to keep in mind that the majority of the inhabitants of Athens were not recognized citizens.  WOMEN, SLAVES, and RESIDENT ALIENS were DENIED CITIZENSHIP. These groups had no standing in the law courts. (If a woman sought the protection of the law, she had to ask a citizen to plead for her in court.)  FUNDAMENTAL RIGHTS  Because the consuls often interpreted Rome's unwritten customary law to suit PATRICIAN INTERESTS, the plebeians demanded that it be written down.  As a result, about 450 B.C., the law was inscribed on twelve tablets of bronze and set up publicly in the Forum.  The LAW OF THE TWELVE TABLETS was the first landmark in the long history of Roman law. Greece is the southeastern-most region on the European continent. It is defined by a series of mountains, surrounded on all sides except the north by water, and endowed with countless large and small islands. The Ionian and Aegean seas and the many deep bays and natural harbors along the coastlines allowed the Greeks to prosper in maritime commerce and to develop a culture which drew inspiration from many sources, both foreign and indigenous. The Mediterranean Sea moderates Greece's climate, cooling the air in summer and providing warmth in the winter months. Summers are generally hot and dry. Winters are moderate and rainy in coastal regions and cold and snowy in mountainous areas.  The plebeians in time acquired other fundamental rights and safeguards:  They secured the right to APPEAL A DEATH SENTENCE imposed by a consul and to be retried before the popular assembly.  The tribunes gained a VETO POWER over any legislation or executive act that threatened the rights of the plebeians.  MARRIAGE between patricians and plebeians, prohibited by the Law of the Twelve Tablets, was legalized.  The enslavement of citizens for DEBT was abolished  Numerous MOUNTAIN RANGES, which crisscross the peninsula, hampered internal communications and led to the development of independent city-states.  Numerous ISLANDS and the indented coastlines of the Greek peninsula and of Asia Minor stimulated a seagoing trade.  The ROCKY SOIL and limited natural resources encouraged the Greeks to establish colonies abroad. POLITICAL POWER  Little by little, the plebeian class acquired more power in the functioning of government.  In 367 B.C., ONE CONSULSHIP was reserved for the plebeians.  Before the end of the century, they were eligible to hold other important positions: PRAETOR (in charge of the law courts), QUAESTOR (treasurer), CENSOR (supervisor of public  Some plebeians succeeded in gaining entry to the SENATE.  The long struggle for equality ended in 287 B.C. when the PLEBEIAN COUNCIL was recognized as a constitutional body, henceforth known as the TRIBAL ASSEMBLY, with the right to PASS LAWS that were binding on all citizens.  The Roman Republic was now technically a democracy, although in actual practice a senatorial aristocracy of patricians and rich plebeians continued to control the state. The daily diet included CEREALS (like wheat and barley), GRAPES, and OLIVES -- commonly called the MEDITERRANEAN TRIAD. The Greeks typically made grapes into WINE and olives into OLIVE OIL, so they would keep without refrigeration. Grains and cereals were commonly used for BREAD and PORRIDGE. Diets were supplemented with VEGETABLES and HERBS from kitchen gardens as well as BERRIES, and MUSHROOMS. The poor usually ate FISH, while oysters, sea urchins, octopus, and eels were considered DELICACIES and only eaten by the wealthy. BREAD in ancient Greece was a very important part of the daily diet. At first all breads were prepared in the embers of a fire. Eventually the Greeks developed a bread OVEN that is similar in function to the ovens we use today. Because they required less wood or charcoal (which was expensive), these ovens made bread AVAILABLE TO ALMOST EVERYONE. The most common type of bread in Greece was called MAZA which was a flat bread made from barley flour. Most meals consisted of maza and some sort of accompaniment to the bread called OPSON. This might be vegetables, fish, olives, onions, garlic, fruit, and on a rare occasion, meat. POLITICAL THEORY AND LEGAL PRINCIPLES  Roman political thinkers contributed many governmental theories:  The SOCIAL CONTRACT theory (that government originated as a voluntary agreement among citizens).  The idea of POPULAR SOVEREIGNTY (that all power ultimately resides with the people). The concept that LAW must be the basis for government. MEN did most of the hard, muscle power jobs such as PLOWING AND REAPING. The WOMEN SOWED SEED, WEEDED THE FIELDS and TENDED THE HOUSEHOLD and CHILDREN. Women might also grow SMALL GARDENS around the house with vegetables and beans. Women might also bring in extra income for the farm with a CRAFT TRADE such as weaving that they might sell at a market. Farmers had to give a SMALL PORTION of their crops to the gods as a SACRIFICE and to the city-state for TAXES. This left the farmers with just enough to feed their families. The land was divided very precisely. Each household in a polis was given a plot of land. This plot would be handed down to the children. If the farmer could not pay his land taxes; a WEALTHIER LAND OWNER COULD TAKE IT and pay the debt for the farmer. Many aristocrats built their wealth this way.  Modern scholars believe that in the 8th century B.C., the inhabitants of some small Latin settlements on hills in the Tiber valley united and established a common meeting place, the FORUM, around which the city of Rome grew. The Greeks have the Parthenon As a result of expansion, important social and economic problems faced Rome by the middle of the second century B.C. One of the most pressing problems was the DISAPPEARANCE OF THE SMALL LANDOWNER. Burdened by frequent military service, his farm buildings destroyed by war and unable to compete with the cheap grain imported from the new Roman province of Sicily, the SMALL FARMER SOLD OUT and moved to Rome. Here he joined the unemployed, discontented PROLETARIAT. The Acropolis of Athens Theater of Dionysius Odeum of Herodes Atticus  Improved farming methods learned from the Greeks and Carthaginians encouraged RICH ARISTOCRATS to buy more and more land and, abandoning the cultivation of grain, introduce LARGE-SCALE SCIENTIFIC PRODUCTION of olive oil and wine, or of sheep and cattle. This trend was especially profitable because an abundance of cheap SLAVES from the conquered areas was available to work on the estates. These large slave plantations, called LATIFUNDIA, were now common in Italy, while small farms were the exception. The land problem was further complicated by the government's earlier practice of LEASING part of the territory acquired in the conquest of the Italian peninsula to anyone willing to pay a percentage of the crop or animals raised on it. Only the patricians or wealthy plebeians could afford to lease large tracts of this PUBLIC LAND and in time they treated it as their own property. Plebeian protests had led to an attempt to limit the holdings of a single individual to 320 acres, but the law was never enforced.   The Greeks were POLYTHEISTIC and did not all worship the same gods. Some small villages worshiped the main gods and their own village gods.  There were hundreds of Greek gods (perhaps around 1,000). Some of the most famous gods were Zeus, Hera, Apollo, Artemis, Poseidon, Aphrodite, Athena, Demeter, Hermes, Ares, and Hades.  ZEUS surpassed all other gods in spirit, wisdom and justice and his wife HERA was the queen of the gods. SACRIFICES to please the gods were a major part of every Greek's religion. Most gods preferred an animal sacrifice -- generally a DOMESTICATED ANIMAL like a chicken, goat or cow. When an animal was sacrificed, it was burned on top of an altar. After it was fully cooked, it had to be EATEN ON THE SPOT -- usually before nightfall. These sacrifices were the property of the god, and had to be eaten in his presence. This was especially important because the ancient Greeks believed that the god's spirit was within the animal sacrificed, and by eating the animal, the worshippers CONSUMED HIS POWER. In this way, they strengthened the connection between man and god.  In designing their bridges and aqueducts, the Romans placed a series of STONE ARCHES next to one another to provide mutual support.  Fourteen AQUEDUCTS, stretching a total of 265 miles, supplied some 50 gallons of water daily for each inhabitant of Rome.  The practical nature of the Romans and their skill and initiative in engineering were demonstrated in the many DAMS, RESERVOIRS, and HARBORS they built.  The BARREL VAULT, basically a series of adjoining arches forming a structure resembling a tunnel, was a new method of enclosing space. In the barrel vault the supports of the arches became heavy masonry walls to bear the weight of the vaulted roof.  The Romans next developed the CROSS VALUT by intersection two barrel vaults at right angles.  The Ancient Greeks are known for three main items: their SCULPTURES, their TEMPLES, and their VASE PAINTINGS.  The art work embodies the ideas of EXCELLENCE, COURAGE and INDEPENDENCE. The Greeks IDEALIZED HUMANS, showing the strong and youthful depiction of men and women. The topics shown in their vases reflect the importance of strength, athletic competition, and battles. Their temples reflected their religious beliefs in the gods  Another important advance in architecture was the Roman's success in constructing CONCRETE DOMES on a large scale. The weight of the dome was transferred directly to the walls and no other support was necessary. The largest of the dome structures was the PANTHEON (temple of all the gods). The standard type of Roman public building was the BASCILICA, a colonnaded structure that became a model for early Christian churches. Rows of columns divided the interior into a central nave and side aisles, with the roof over the nave raised to admit light, creating a CLERESTORY (an upper portion of a wall containing windows for supplying natural light to a building  Philosophy enabled many thinkers to move beyond mythic explanations of the universe and arrive at ones based on self-conscious rational methods of inquiry.  The early COSMOLOGISTS, such as THALES, PYTHAGORAS, and DEMOCRITUS, developed RATIONAL ACCOUNTS OF NATURE in terms of imperishable substances, mathematical principles, or the properties of atoms.  Similarly, HIPPOCRATES and his followers rejected mythic-religious explanations of disease and observed symptoms in order to identify their natural causes.  Against the Cosmologists, the SOPHISTS argued that speculation about the universe was futile. Instead, these thinkers scrutinized people and society and instructed men in the skills of oratory (winning an argument).  Protagoras and other Sophists examined questions of ETHICS, LAW, and MORALITY, but they were PHILOSOPHICAL RELATIVISTS whose critical method undermined traditional authority  Religion played a very important role in the daily life of Ancient Rome. The Romans believed that GODS CONTROLLED THEIR LIVES and, as a result, spent a great deal of their time worshipping them.  The most important god was JUPITER. He was the king of gods who ruled with his wife JUNO, the goddess of the sky.  Other gods includes MARS, MERCURY, NEPTUNE, JANIS, DIANA, VESTA, MINERVA, VENUS.  After the reign of the EMPEROR AUGUSTUS (27 BC to AD 14), the emperor was also considered to be a god and he was worshipped on special occasions. TEMPLES to worship the gods were built throughout the Roman Empire.  Each family home would also have a small altar and shrine. The Romans had PERSONAL HOUSEHOLD GODS or spirits called “lares” which were worshipped every day at home. The shrine contained statues of the “lares” and the head of the household led family prayers around the shrine each day.  The Romans developed a distinctive SCULPTURE which was realistic, secular, and individualistic. EQUESTRIAN STATUES sculpted coffins (SARCOPHAGI), and the RELIEFS found on imperial monuments were exceptionally fine works of art. The Romans were particularly skilled in producing floor MOSAICS and in painting FRESCOES. Roman epic, dramatic, and lyric POETRY forms were usually written in conscious imitation of Greek masterpieces.  The Romans were attracted to two Hellenistic ethical philosophies:  EPICURIANSIM taught that the wise man could achieve happiness simply by freeing his body from pain and his mind from fear -- particularly the fear of death. To reach this goal, men must AVOID BODILY EXCESSES, including those of pleasure, and accept the scientific teaching of Democritus that both body and soul are composed of atoms which fall apart at death. Thus, BEYOND DEATH THERE IS NO EXISTENCE and nothing to fear.  STOICISM argued that THE UNIVERSE IS CONTROLLED by some power -- variously called Reason, World Soul, Fortune, and God -- which determines everything that happens. The wise man conforms his will to the World Will and “STOICALLY" ACCEPTS whatever part fortune allots him in the drama of life.  Stoicism had a humanizing effect on Roman law by introducing such concepts as the LAW OF NATURE, the LAW OF BROTHERHOOD OF MEN (including slaves), and the view that a man is INNOCENT UNTIL PROVED GUILTY. References: A Comparison of Ancient Civilizations online-history.org/wc1-docs/Comparison-of-Ancient-Civilizations.ppt