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[pic] MA International Business & M A International Economics and Trade Dissertation Handbook Academic Year 2009/10 INTRODUCTION Your dissertation is a very significant part of your MA programme. In the MAIB it represents 60 credit points, ie the equivalent of THREE taught courses, that is three sets of lectures and classes, three sets of course work, three sets of examinations. It cannot be compared to a ‘large’ essay. The Dissertation has specific characteristics and will be remembered by you for many years after you have completed it. It often provides a key resource in your next career stages, as the basis for further career development, or as the central theme of a successful job application interview. This research dissertation handbook contains valuable advice and is very thorough in its approach to producing a successful dissertation. It highlights, step-by-step, the various layers of dissertation work, which is an integrated process of writing and research. However, there is a ‘snag’ with advice concerning research! It can make you so concerned with achieving the ideal that it is easy to become demoralised when faced with the ‘messy reality’ of actually doing research. While most students aim for the ideal, as you work through the handbook and particularly as you come to the actual mechanisms of doing your research and producing your own dissertation, bear in mind that there is a difference between the ideal and reality. For instance: 1. In choosing a topic, many students and even experienced researchers are liable to select far too wide a topic. Unless this is corrected early you are then faced with a topic that cannot be adequately completed in the time available. Also, you may be faced with the agony of having to throw away good and painfully obtained data, information that does not fit the revised and narrower topic area. This common problem is well worth addressing in advance of the research programme before you get deeply involved in retrieving data. Section Two of this handbook offers some useful tips on selecting a topic, points which you will need to consider almost immediately. 2. ‘Get a fix’ on what is expected in a dissertation, especially by looking at and reviewing previous dissertations. You could discuss them with fellow students as well as your supervisors. You should always be very clear of the assessment criteria. Appropriately, Section Seven sets out a range of criteria on which your work will be judged. 3. Undertaking research can be a lonely and isolating activity, especially for part-timers. You can overcome this, to some extent, by linking up with fellow students. Seek a ‘research partner’ or form a small research group and meet regularly to discuss issues arising and research problems. 4. Most research students seem to worry more about the quantitative aspects of their research rather than other aspects. Of course it’s always nice to get back questionnaires that afford high statistical significance, with all the questions answered and all the numbers tallying. But it doesn’t always happen! Bear in mind that a poor or incomplete response can still provide some useful data. If it doesn’t provide you with a perfect representative sample, it may still be of use as an indicative sample, it can indicate findings without confirming them. Even poor responses can say something that might be well worth writing about, as long as they are written about honestly and with academic integrity. 5. Do not be disheartened if the findings seem to destroy a cherished hypothesis. What you find may not be what you expected to find or what you have liked to find. Remember, negative or unexpected findings can also be valuable in their own right. 6. Follow your intuition! Some of the best research findings come about following an intuitive idea - the sensing of a connection between two apparently dissociated ideas, for instance. It is worth treating intuition seriously, even though testing out the validity of connections can be different and sometimes boring. 7. Work out a programme - a timetable with your supervisor, one which offers a guide to the progress and stages of your research, so that you don’t find yourself panicking to complete in an impossibly short period. Therefore, pay special attention to the ‘Dissertation Supervision Handbook’, particularly as it offers professional guidance on your responsibilities and the responsibilities of your supervisor. The dissertation must be from 12,000 to 15,000 words. Anything less is unacceptable. A 10% margin over the 15,000 words will be accepted, but not more. Above all, remember that research involves aiming for the ideal. However, carrying out research involves making the best of what you can do in what are often far from ideal conditions. Don’t therefore, become too demoralised if your research findings do not emerge quite as your own research module might seem to suggest they should. Your supervisor will appreciate this problem, after all they have been through it themselves. Bear this in mind and you might well find that doing research is among the most satisfying aspects of your postgraduate programme. TWO copies of the work, firmly bound (in any fashion, hard or soft cover), must be submitted to the Post graduate Office in Stapleton House by 4pm, 21 May 2010. SECTION ONE DISSERTATION: PURPOSE AND INTENT | | |REASONS FOR ENGAGING IN DISSERTATION WORK | Your dissertation is an opportunity for you to demonstrate your ability to investigate an issue of your own choice over a significant period of time. Essentially this is an individual effort but it is carried out with the guidance and advice of your supervisor. Research dissertations aim to provide students with the experience of carrying out an original in-depth study, presenting results and analytical conclusions in an appropriate format, usually conforming to a standard research approach. Research is a creative and investigative process which only you can develop fully. The dissertation has the following aims: 1. To undertake a detailed investigation of one area or topic within the subject field 2. To develop a thorough analysis and synthesis of theory, policy and practice in relation to the chosen topic 3. To demonstrate application of knowledge and skills developed through the Research Methods module 4. To provide an opportunity for critical reflection on the research topic | | |WHAT IS AN ACCEPTABLE DISSERTATION' | One of the main reasons for undertaking your research is for us to assess your competence as an investigator or researcher. Your investigations need to have academic rigour and in some instances industrial relevance (managerial/policy/planning implications- where appropriate). The examiners seek evidence on a variety of capabilities, including: 1. Your ability to solve a particular pragmatic or theoretical problem 2. Your competence in applying primary and secondary research techniques and analysis to a particular situation 3. Your potential to contribute to the existing body of knowledge | | |WHAT IS RESEARCH' | The type and level of research appropriate at MA level will clearly differ from that required at PhD level. A PhD dissertation distinguishes itself from a Masters dissertation in that the intent is not solely to add to existing knowledge but to contribute to a new area of knowledge. Nevertheless, MA research is an original investigation, carried out to gain knowledge and understanding. Research can be: a) Pure/basic: theoretical or empirical work b) Applied: directed towards a practical aim or objective and concerned with working out a solution to a specific problem Four Types of Research 1. Investigation of a problem, question or issue Any academic project needs not only to investigate but also to explain, to be critical of ideas and methods and to evaluate quality of evidence. You should do this as well as seeking a solution to the immediate problem or an answer to the immediate question you are investigating. Inductive investigations are one approach to seeking evidence. They begin from description and then move towards explanation. Such approaches are initially concerned with observations leading to the development of a hypothesis and theories in order to explain those particular observations. Inductive research can work from a consideration of a particular situation towards producing generalisations. 2. Applying a particular theory, concept or model to a real world situation Such investigations are generally deductive. They have a tendency to be more scientifically based and begin with an existing theory proceeded by a hypothesis which is tested and assessed (confirmed, refuted or modified). A deductive project may work from a consideration of the general to a consideration of a particular situation. Gilbert clearly summarised the distinction between both deductive and inductive approaches, emphasising that induction is the technique for generating theories and deduction is the technique for applying them (1993:23). 3. Analysis of the work of others through reflective and incisive evaluation Armchair theorising and scholarship (thinking, reading and contemplation) could also lead to the formulation of new ideas, theories and hypotheses. This form of analysis involves the use of a variety of secondary sources and documentary evidence. This approach may be more difficult to implement successfully, as the original contribution you make may be less easy to demonstrate than approaches (1) and (2). Dissertations based solely on secondary sources are acceptable, for the MA IB Dissertations, although primary (field) research is welcome and encouraged where the research plan merits it. Such work must always be carefully discussed with your tutor. 4. Inductive, deductive and scholarship This is a comprehensive combination of any two or all three of the types highlighted above. This type of investigation, which integrates several modes of analysis, is generally viewed as progressive in that it is fairly flexible and dynamic. SECTION TWO SELECTING A TOPIC | | |KEY THEMES | 1. Be interested in your chosen topic 2. Be sure you can obtain information 3. Be sure that you can get access to, and co-operation from, specific institutions and organisations 4. Be confident that your project can be completed in the time allocated 5. Be sure you are capable of carrying out your intentions In many ways making an appropriate decision on your research topic is crucial, since so much thereafter depends on it! Your general topic area might relate to subjects drawn from previous taught modules, to practical but related experiences or to knowledge gained from previous vacation work. Whatever your initial interest you need to identify a suitable and novel area of work. You need to define a specific research topic where you can reasonably expect to make a valid contribution to knowledge. For your proposed topic to meet the academic expectations of a postgraduate dissertation, you will need to consider the following criteria: 1. Relevance: the topic chosen must clearly lie within one or more of the fields of related study. For example, if you are a tourism/leisure student this could include leisure, recreation, sports studies, tourism, hospitality, heritage, conference/event management or a closely related discipline. 2. Specificity: having decided on a general area of work and on a specific topic, you are then faced with perhaps the most critical task of all: deciding on the specific research issue or question which you intend to investigate in detail. You need to have a clearly defined question of some substance to investigate and resolve. In order for you to have thought your entire proposal through, defining underlying concepts and the state of the problem, you need to be genuinely informed in your topic area. 3. Analysis: the topic chosen needs to allow you to be appropriately investigative, analytical and critical; a project which is mainly descriptive would not fulfil this criterion. To satisfy the examiners you will need to demonstrate that you have mastered some of the skills of analysis, i.e. breaking a complex issue into component parts and looking at the relationships between them. 4. Synthesis: analysis is closely linked to synthesis. The process of synthesis draws together information from different sources (including your own research findings) and constructing them into a convincing whole or a series of interconnecting parts. You need to be constructively critical, both of your own findings (in particular its boundaries and limitations) and the work of others. Essentially your criticisms need to be informed. 5. Originality: as far as possible your proposed topic should be original. Replicate studies, if undertaken, need to be set in a different context not previously investigated. For example, if you are interested in pursuing an investigation of bribery and corruption within commercial organisations, and are aware that studies have largely been concerned with multinational organisations, then you may wish to concentrate on small firms/organisations. 6. Feasibility: your proposed topic needs to be feasible in terms of the time and the resources available to you, and in terms of access to agencies, sources and data. You need to consider the scale of what you attempt very carefully and resist the temptation to be over-ambitious. The quality of your research is of greater importance than the quantity. | | |ACCESSING INFORMATION | You will need to consider various levels of access: Agencies Depending on the nature of your topic, you may be seeking collaboration from external agencies (e.g. National Youth Agency, Improvement and Development Agency for Local Government, The Basic Skills Agency). Agencies (commissions and/or councils) receive increasing numbers of requests from students. Therefore you need to arrange your contact well in advance, with appropriate tact and diplomacy. Databases Gaining access to information and relevant sources will help guide your choice of a particular topic and will also influence your analytical assessments. Given the increased demand of databases, there are more progressive ways to locate information, to extend rather than to replace traditional searching procedures (e.g. cross- referencing). There is an extensive amount of useful information for students on the World Wide Web (e.g. electronic library resources, university and college resources, books, journals and other publications). However, you should note that some databases might be available only on payment. Some databases are rather large in size and require the use of powerful computers. Therefore, you may have to seriously consider access to good IT technology before you engage in database research. There are a range of electronic databases available in the Learning Centre (see below) Facilities You may be intending to visit facilities (e.g. business centres/organisations and countryside parks), perhaps to carry out surveys, which involve interviewing members of the public or to collect information for a case-study. In most instances this may require permission and prior arrangement with the operator/manager, bearing in mind that, as with agencies, some facility operators are often inundated with educational-based requests. If public usage is an important consideration, you need to take into account timing and seasonal usage factors (if your survey is to be representative of this). General Public You may find it useful interviewing people in public places (e.g. shopping precincts). However, the employment of a research programme concerning people you already know may be more productive in gaining direct co-operation. Such people may be willing to help and be supportive of your needs. Yet gaining access to particular social groups (e.g. minority groups) may be more difficult and thus may raise a series of ethical dilemmas, especially if your own background is different from those you intend to study. You will need to be prepared for challenging situations and to be well briefed in your subject area to avoid raising naive and insensitive questions. Libraries Remember that as a student at LMU you are able to register with many other University College libraries in London (or outside) for readers’ tickets/ cards. Usually you cannot borrow, but this is not really a necessity for a full time student. Check these with our own learning centre. It is almost certain you will need to make use of other libraries, including specialist libraries (e.g. the public ‘City Business Library’ - which is not the City University Library , the British Library, or the Commonwealth Institute). You may need a letter of introduction to ensure you can gain access, and you will need to arrange this in good time. Personnel It may be that you wish to interview a small number of key personnel to obtain an authoritative statement on policy. Here you need to respect the time and commitments of senior staff, show flexibility and sensitivity and be prepared to alter your schedule accordingly. This may mean you need to have sufficient time in hand to accommodate possible delays or make alternative plans in the event of non-availability or refusal. Professional Organisations You may wish to become a member of a professional and/or academic institute (e.g. British Sociological Association, Chartered Institute for Personnel and Development, Royal Institute of British Architects). These organisations may help provide you with key contacts through national registers. Particular organisations (e.g., Royal Anthropological Association) have specialist libraries which may prove useful in your search for appropriate material. Venues Gaining access to particular venues (e.g. geographical locations and establishments such as the House of Commons and the Maastricht Exhibition and Congress Centre) may be fruitful in your observational enquiries. Yet you need to be realistic in terms of obtaining practical access to particular venues or localities. For example, while a proposed investigation of ‘Eco-tourism in Brazil’ is undeniably exotic and could well be informative, the practical barriers of being involved in an eco-tourism project within that particular destination should be only too evident! In practice, if you find you are having difficulties with access, having considered all of the above points, you should discuss problems with your supervisor, who may be able to assist you with your negotiated entry to certain organisations, places and venues- providing letters of support and academic references. | | |THE LEARNING CENTRE | The Learning Centre Catalogue can be found on main LMU web site. This catalogue lists all of the items stocked by the Learning Centre. NB: The following electronic databases can be accessed from: http://www.unl.ac.uk/library/cdroms.shtml or be using the address for the individual database as given below, within the University only. Emerald: http://www.emerald-library.com The Athens gateway that some of you are used to is no longer recommended as a way of finding electronic resources as it will cease to be available from the end of July 2009. The page listing Athens resources will continue to be available until that time, but the number of resources will shrink over the course of the year. The three best ways to find Electronic Resources are to go to the LMU web page and then : • Library Catalogue • Electronic Resource Search Page • Subject Guides European Business ASAP: http://infotrac.galegroup.com/itweb/unlweb European Business ASAP contains the text of articles from over 100 periodicals on Business and the Economy. The subject guide button enables the subject index to be searched. When you have found a relevant article, you will find that there are links to articles on similar topics at the end of it. The keyword search option enables you to search for words that occur in the titles and text of the articles. There is a good help facility that explains how to search in more detail. Lexis-Nexis Executive: http://web.lexis-nexis.com/executive Lexis-Nexis Executive is a database containing articles from several hundred different newspapers. This is a very large database and you will need to think carefully about the search words to get results. SECTION THREE FORMAT, STRUCTURE AND ACADEMIC CONTENT | | |KEY COMPONENTS | There is no one effective way of organising your written work. Your dissertations should be organised in a manner considered to be appropriate for individual study. The literature review, methodology, results and analysis must feature but not necessarily labelled under such headings. For instance, your initial chapter does not have to be entitled literature review, even though the intent is to (critically) review the literature. It would be more appropriate to label this section/chapter with a heading that is more specific. For example, if your research programme is concerned with strategic branding techniques in the automobile industry, you literature review chapter (or the first of your review chapters) could be entitled: ‘Brand Management in the Automobile Industry- A Re-analysis’. You will need to use your discretion in handling various aspects of your investigation. Nevertheless, in presenting your work it is important that you process and order information sequentially. The following list highlights the essential parts which your completed work should contain: 1. Front Cover (& Spine) 2. Title Page 3. Acknowledgements 4. Contents Page (List of Tables, Figures and Appendices) 5. Abstract/Executive Summary 6. Aim and Objectives 7. Introduction 8. Literature Review 9. Methodology 10. Investigation: Results 11. Investigation: Analysis 12. Conclusion (with suggestions for further work) 13. Recommendations (if appropriate) 14. References / Bibliography (see Section Four) 15. Appendices (see Section Four) | | |FRONT COVER & SPINE PAGE/SPINE | The FRONT COVER should contain: 6. the title of the study, succinctly expressed and concisely worded (maximum of 12 words) 7. the name of the author c) the award d) the year of submission in the following order: | | | | | | | | | | |RECONCILING THE ISSUE OF BRIBERY AND CORRUPTION WITHIN TRANSNATIONAL ORGANISATIONS | | | | | | | | | |MY NAME HERE | |ID NUMBER | | | |MA INTERNATIONAL BUSINESS | |2008 | | | | | The COVER SPINE should be presented as follows: | | |MY NAME HERE MA 2008 | | | |TITLE PAGE | The TITLE PAGE should contain: a) the full title of the study b) the full name of the author c) the qualification to which the project relates, using a standard form of words d) the institution’s name e) the month and year of submission in the following order: | | | | | | | | | | |RECONCILING THE ISSUE OF BRIBERY AND CORRUPTION WITHIN TRANSNATIONAL ORGANISATIONS | | | | | | | | | |AY DIDIT | | | | | | | |A dissertation submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements of London Metropolitan University for the degree of Master of Arts | |(International Business) | | | | | | | | | |LONDON METROPOLITAN UNIVERSITY | | | |SEPTEMBER 2008 | | | | | | | | | | | | | |ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS | ACKNOWLEDGMENTS to those who have assisted, provided information, guidance and advice. You must make sure that these are clear and concise. | | | | |CONTENTS LIST | The CONTENTS PAGE is an outline of the entire work, in a detailed list format, setting the sections and sub-sections out in sequence (with page numbers clearly indicated). With respect to the both the contents list and main text: MA students should not subdivide sections of dissertations in point format, since writing and producing a MA dissertation should be a fluent process. It is recommended that students develop headings and subheadings especially in an attempt to aid the reader’s comprehension (see Section Five: Writing-up-Presentation Style). In the contents list it is conventional to number the preliminary pages (abstracts and research aims) with lower case Roman numerals (i.e. i, ii, etc.) and the main text pages (starting with the introduction) in Arabic numerals (1, 2, etc.). Finally, keep your table of contents clear and concise. The sole purpose is to assist any reader to find their way easily around your text and to allow them to readily locate particular sections or topics. Your content, layout and pagination therefore requires accuracy, and you should check it carefully, particularly if you have made any last minute changes to your text. | | |ABSTRACT/EXECUTIVE SUMMARY | This is an outline/overview of the whole project on one page only. Abstracts (MA dissertations) are extremely concise and not usually more than 250 words. They briefly account for what you set out to do, how you did it and what were your findings. The outline of your findings/results should usually comprise of 60% of your abstract/executive summary. This component is likely to be the last section to be written and should be typewritten, using single spacing. | | |RESEARCH AIM | The RESEARCH AIM should be clearly and prominently displayed in one sentence. It is a good tactic to have it placed on a separate page together with your objectives (see below). The aim should also appear later and be explained accordingly, particularly in the introduction and at the end of the literature review, at the point of logical emergence. One of the immediate concerns of the examiner is to check whether your aim and related objectives have been addressed. Therefore, clearly displaying your intentions at the start of your dissertation can help to guide your examiner’s assessment. Remember, in articulating your aim you are seeking to demonstrate something of critical significance. Hence, you are not writing the study for the sake of describing something but to introduce an issue (or a problem). A research project that is solely a discussion or summary (of a particular business establishment for example) is not acceptable. The aim should be clearly expressed and be concerned with what is achievable. It should be expressed more formally but equally succinctly. Also, the narrower the aim the more successful the project is likely to be. Thus avoid constructing an aim that is too general. The more precise the aim the stronger the focus. Your aim should be expressed in such a way as to demonstrate an approach that is analytical and evaluative, not simply investigative. Avoid ‘to investigate’ or ‘to explore’. Use ‘to analyse’, ‘to evaluate’, ‘to assess’ or ‘to determine’. To describe and to list issues are not sufficient; there must be an intent to do more! Illustration One Do not write: ‘To investigate sports facilities in luxury hotels’ But write: ‘To determine the effectiveness of sports facilities in attracting visitors to luxury hotels’ Illustration Two Do not write: ‘To explore tourism impact on Barbados’ But write: ‘To evaluate the effects of international tourism on the socio-economic life of Barbados’ Illustration Three The aim, however, could represent a highly specific research question or hypothesis ‘International tourism affects the socio-economic life of Barbados’ OBJECTIVES attempt to address what the main aim could achieve (or test the stated hypothesis). They are concise statements of expected outcomes of the study- what you want to find and not how you mean to do it. Thus, for instance, avoid ‘to establish x by means of case studies’ or ‘to compare y and z by means of a literature survey’. | | |The following is an example of a particular aim and related objectives: | | | | | |Research Aim: | |To evaluate the perceptions, attitudes and experiences of tourism from the perspectives of single-parent mothers. | | | |Objectives: | |1. To demonstrate that single-parent mothers have different perceptions and experiences of travel/tourism than those mothers who reside in| |nuclear family units. | | | |2. To determine particular social factors which limit tourism access and participation for this specific group. | | | |3. To contribute to the generation of a model of travel groups with particular needs. | | | |4. To create a typology of strategies and recommendations which will help to encourage this particular group to participate in the | |‘tourist experience’. | Common Instruction Words In articulating your aim and expressing your objectives you should often use common instructions words. Yet in doing so you need to be clear of their conceptual meanings. The table below presents specific examples of some key commands used in dissertation work. | | |KEY INSTRUCTIONS APPROPRIATE FOR POSTGRADUATE RESEARCH | | | | |Analyse |To break a question, issue or concern into its component parts and | | |explain how they relate to one another | | | | |Assess |To estimate or judge the importance or value of something | | | | |Compare |To examine similarities and differences | | | | |Contrast |To focus on the differences and diversities | | | | |Criticise |To concentrate on the faults, limitations and usefulness of something| | | | |Determine |To establish the validity of something, using evidence to support key| | |propositions or statements, i.e., to ascertain or to conclude | | | | |Evaluate |To consider the importance, success or value of something by using | | |evidence to support viewpoints and opinions | | | | |Examine |To provide both a precise and reasoned account of something by | | |continuously questioning appropriate issues and emerging concerns | | | | |Illustrate |To use examples from a range of sources (e.g., case studies, | | |observations and academic works) in an attempt to demonstrate (or | | |elucidate) the issue or concern that is being investigated | | | |INTRODUCTION | This is the first major section of the dissertation! Thus you should efficiently prepare the reader for what you are going to say. Present the background and reasons for the subject chosen, and place the work in context. It is recognised that you will have had to be selective and that you will have had to make choices about your area of activity. You may care to briefly indicate this to the reader, defining the boundaries of your work through a general introduction to the subject matter. The most successful introductions usually begin with a firm statement to set the scene. Importantly, within the introduction you are concerned with developing the rationale for your investigation. The introduction also needs to demonstrate why you have chosen this particular field of study. However, do not write that you are studying a topic because it interests you. Show why the issue is worthy of consideration. This is usually because: a) It has not been significantly studied before (especially using your approach) b) It may be considered to be of some value in advancing knowledge or understanding At postgraduate level it is more important to demonstrate research competence. Although you may be trying to fill a gap or contribute to an under-researched field of study, you are not fundamentally attempting to push forward the frontiers of knowledge; leave that until you do your MPhil or PhD! Discuss the nature and significance of the problem that is to be addressed. Convince the examiner that it is not a trivial topic and show how it may be of use. It is usually relevant to discuss your topic area within the context of previous work done on the topic area (or similar/related topics). Chapter Profiles: The introduction should also include a brief profile of each of the chapters. Each of these profiles should contextualise the links between each of the chapters. | | |LITERATURE REVIEW | As far as possible, this section should be a systematic, complete, up-to-date and fully referenced survey of all the available and relevant information. In most cases you should proceed from the general to the particular; starting first with core texts in your subject area then moving to specialist subject texts and monographs. You should include the most up-to-date information you can find, most probably drawn from recent issues of specialist journals, papers, conference proceedings, newspaper articles and personal communication from subject experts. You need to summarise, comment on and critically review existing work on the topic. It is necessary for you to set the scene and to identify which direction the current enquiry is developing (or not developing, as the case may be). This can be achieved by identifying the areas that need further clarification/verification or highlighting the possible ‘gaps’. Thus, your ‘right to present’ your own investigation will naturally follow. Your literature review should develop a clear structural framework, commenting on various conceptual themes and issues. The ‘aim of the game’ is to avoid mere description. In many instances, students may include a brief historical background to orientate the reader. This should be concise not discursive and used only as a platform from which to address more significant conceptual issues. It is tempting to include all material you have discovered, but ask yourself what purpose it serves and if it does not help discard it. Material which is ‘out of touch’ with your research aims and the context of your study will not gain extra marks and could actually affect your overall result adversely, especially since it exposes an inability to reclaim and synthesise appropriate information. The literature review can also reveal appropriate methodologies and should be used to confirm your approach. There may not appear to be much existing literature to review but there are always associated areas you should look at; this is a very effective way of demonstrating gaps and identifying appropriate ideas to critically consider through further discussion and analysis. The review should not only cover the topic itself but also associated concepts- a source of theoretical ideas to help establish the conceptual context of the study. Importantly, the literature review is more than just a simple ‘review of the literature’. It is a critical analysis of the theoretical and empirical contributions in the field of study. Thus there should be ongoing attempts to create debate and compare and contrast the different perspectives and contributions connected to the field of study. | | |The objective of a literature review is to develop a ‘deep approach to academic study. | |This can be developed through the following criteria: | | | |1. Focus on what is signified (authors’ arguments, theoretical statements and/or the concepts applicable to solving the problem) | | | |2. Relate previous knowledge to new knowledge | | | |3. Relate knowledge from different but relevant courses/modules | | | |4. Relate and distinguish evidence and argument | | | |5. Organise and structure content into a coherent whole | | | |6. Connect facts and concepts reflectively | | | |7. Assess the material critically and authoritatively | | | |8. Carefully link the debate to the purpose of the study | | | |METHODOLOGY | Within this section you have an opportunity to demonstrate what constitutes an effective and appropriate research design; this is an important consideration in any research undertaking, on whatever scale. This section demonstrates how the investigation was carried out and justifies the methods used, and so how they support your search for an ‘objective’ answer. For example, explain whether or not an experimental method was appropriate and, if so, detail the structure and form of your particular experiment. It is necessary to consider the following questions: 1. Is an appropriate, interpretative framework being used (e.g. a social science, economic or marketing perspective)' 2. Are data sources appropriate and reliable' • Is the scientific apparatus correct and reliable' 3. How is your method of investigation appropriate' • Will it yield the information required to meet the aim' 4. Why were certain methods not used' Therefore, you are reviewing the strengths and weaknesses of a range of methods and research possibilities. This critical review is necessary in an attempt to justify your chosen method(s). A common problem for examiners is that it is difficult for them to really know what the students actually did. Thus you should clearly explain the methods you followed. You need to show how your method fits into the range of research methodologies, approaches and philosophies. Accordingly, you need to identify the advantages and possible limitations of your method in the light of those approaches and philosophies. Another related issue the examiner will usually be concerned with is: ‘Have you designed the project on a realistic scale and used appropriate data collection methods'’ In general, you are describing what method or research tool you chose to use at each stage of your investigation, explaining why you did so (including some logical justification for each of your choices, supported by the literature). Also, in your description include libraries used, bibliographies, abstracts, CD ROMS and/or databases consulted. The constraints you faced are to be acknowledged within this section. Thus try to be reflexive and openly discuss the specific problems you have encountered and how you attempted to deal with them. You should draw on related methodological problems encountered by other researchers and discuss how they attempted to confront particular difficulties and problematic situations. Accordingly, discuss any ethical problems that you encountered. You may be confronted with unforeseen circumstances during your research endeavours (e.g. politically sensitive environments within particular institutions). Unanticipated events and issues may influence a series of modifications (e.g. employing questions of a more sensitive and informed nature). Therefore, an honest researcher should openly admit mistakes, failures, changes and, importantly, declare preconceived views as part of the overall analysis. The Method of Investigation can be qualitative, quantitative and/or a combination of both techniques: 1. Quantitative techniques often attempt to test a hypothesis by incorporating it into the research design and responding to it by measuring its strengths and weaknesses. In general, these techniques enable the researcher to give numerical measurements to the data collected. 2. Qualitative techniques seek to come to terms with meaning rather than frequency. They discover or uncover issues in order to generate ideas and hypotheses 3. Empirical techniques can include any or several of the following: a. Observations b. Interviews (structured, semi-structured and/or unstructured) c. Experiments - laboratory or field d. Focus groups e. Questionnaires (open ended or closed) Empirical research is synonymous with primary research. Empiricism involves reliance on the use of experiments and observations. It refers to the way in which knowledge derives from experience. Therefore, the term ‘empirical’ refers to something which is not based on theory but on evidence. Importantly, evidence can help to challenge theory and/or contribute to different ways of thinking about emerging problems and concerns. | | |Your methodology chapter should observe some of the following components: | | | | |1. Choice of Research Paradigms |_ Hypothetico-Deductive | | |_ Interpretative-Inductive | | |_ Combinations of the above | | | | |2. Sampling Methodology |_ Size and type of sample utilised | | | | |3. Data Collection Procedure |_ Type of instrument or approach used, e.g. | | |questionnaire, interview, case study | | | | |4. Reasoning Behind the Content / |_ Approaches used to order and categorise data | |Format of Data Retrieval |and why' | | | | | |_ Reasoning behind particular questions | | | | | |_ What statistical methods, if any, were used with | | |your quantitative data, and why' | | | | |5. Attention to Possible Ethical Issues, |_ Problems anticipated and encountered with the | |Dilemmas and/or Moral Problems |use of various methodological procedures (the | | |use of politically oriented or ‘loaded’ questions | | |for example) | | | | | |_ Problematic issues researching sensitive areas | | |(e.g. gender and race issues) | | | | Methodologies can follow a number of conceptual approaches: 1. Scientific (Positivist) Approach This approach is usually based on comparisons and experiments (for example, if we do ‘x’ then ‘y’ will result and if do ‘w’ then ‘y’ will not result, then we undertake experiments to check this). The positivist approach usually: a) Asks questions derived from a problem (i.e. what causes ‘a’') b) Establishes a hypothesis in order to answer a question- by turning the question into testable proposition (‘a’ is caused by ‘b’; the effect of ‘b’ is ‘a’) NB’The hypothesis is a statement about how variables and concepts are, or are believed to be, related. Also, it is something which explains or predicts a phenomenon. How are hypotheses derived in the first place' Usually through a ‘hunch’ or derived from a conceptual framework, model or a pre-established theory. c) Deduces outcomes through specific predictions d) Tests outcomes by gathering information and analysing it A hypothesis must be ‘testable’ and capable of being shown to be ‘false’. No model, theory or hypothesis has value unless it is technically possible to show that it is ‘false’. The hypothesis needs to be framed in such a way as to be exposed to possible refutation. It is never possible to reach conclusions about the ‘truth’ of a hypothesis despite the amount of data in support of it. You should look for evidence that will cause rejection. e) Re-assesses the model/hypothesis Is the hypothesis supported/corroborated or is it rejected' It cannot necessarily be ‘proven’; only rendered ‘more probable’. Through a positivist approach there is a tendency to utilise more linear, detached and structured data collection strategies (e.g. telephone interviews, formal mailed questionnaires and structured household interviews with standardised questions/ interviews). 2. Managerial and Social Scientific Approach(es) Much research is undertaken with an underlying positivist philosophy (explicit or implicit). It may be possible to undertake ‘field experiments’ with the use of control groups. For example, in determining the causes of high labour turnover in one business it may not be possible to vary conditions of employment to assess the impact on turnover. However, it could be possible to compare two businesses with different turnover levels in order to identify significant influencing variables. Concepts must be turned into something measurable by identifying the key indicators through a process of ‘operationalisation’. The hypotheses may be framed in a loose way, often as a set of research aims/objectives which are sometimes imprecise and difficult to falsify. Also, the hypothesis may be in the form of a ‘possible solution’ to a problem. 3. Phenomenological (Non-Positivist) Approach This focuses less on observable/measurable phenomenon and causality and more on meanings and understandings associated with the observed phenomena. The world is socially constructed and subjective and has no existence or meaning outside that given to it by members of society. Ethnomethodology draws on the phenomenological approach in an attempt to see the world as the observed see it. The research methods used are often, but not solely, qualitative. These inductive approaches can be constructed through small samples and in-depth investigations. Students may wish to pursue the ethnographic method of inquiry. This involves some of the following techniques: unstructured/informal interviews; ‘friendly conversations’; observations and participant observation. This rather distinctive, qualitative-based approach usually concerns a researcher’s direct involvement in the lives of others, or involvement in the realities of particular environments. | | |INVESTIGATION: RESULTS | Within these sections you must present and interpret your findings. If you are pursuing a particularly quantitative-based study you may wish to first present your data and then, within separate chapters perhaps, discuss the key theoretical ramifications of the research findings. However, with respect to qualitative data, you may wish to integrate your results/findings (e.g. anecdotal information) with critical reasoning and theoretical development (either to refute, confirm or advance key theories highlighted in the literature review). Accordingly, results and analysis sections may be combined in certain circumstances. When presenting the results of your research programme try to summarise the information you have accumulated. Also, inform the reader of the various patterns in the data or narrate the series of events and cite the results of any tests used to support the patterns identified. Refer the reader to the information contained in figures and tables in a clear and consistent manner. The most productive results sections are those which begin to present the general and then move to the specific. This procedure helps to orient the reader to the various patterns in the data and encourages the writer to progress naturally to specific parts of the data which set the scene for detailed discussion and analysis. | | |INVESTIGATION: ANALYSIS ADISCUSSIONSNALYSIS | |ANALYSIS | It is strongly recommended that the investigation chapter (or chapters) deals with each major objective of the research. The investigation is a crucial part of your work, it gives you the opportunity to take an individualistic and self-analytical stance. After presenting your findings you may (or should!) be able to construct and advance further theoretical approaches. In scientific terms, to say something which is ‘theoretical’ is usually considered to be inferior to something which is ‘factual’. But in reality theory is not inferior to fact, some theory is essential as a way of organising fact (or what is believed to be ‘factual’) so that it makes sense. A jumble of unorganised fact (or data) is of no practical use and can only be coped with when we discern regularities and patterns, for this we need theory. The whole study should be balanced and objective, evidence should lead to conclusions. You should not set out to confirm pre-conceived ideas (‘bias’), however strongly and sincere those ideas are felt or believed in. Therefore, ‘be enquiring’ and ‘be prepared’ for outcomes and conclusions contrary to the beliefs and ideas you initially held. Demolishing your hypothesis or preconceptions may not seem enjoyable, but getting a result which you did not expect could be more appealing than merely confirming what you thought all along. Also, it is always fruitful to discover weaknesses or problems with a particular idea or viewpoint as there are always opportunities to construct ways of improvement. However, you need not be obsessed in searching for the ‘absolute truth’, verifying knowledge and searching for fixed representations, as your enquiry is to some degree impressionistic and represents a particular moment and context. Thus what you may be searching for is ‘multiple truths’, ‘contending truths’ and/or ‘conflicting perspectives’. | | |CONCLUSION | Key Themes: 1. Revisit the aim and objectives- were they dealt with or not. 2. Summarise the outcomes, including a discussion on how your work could have been improved (structurally, conceptually and methodologically). 3. Comment on the degree of significance of the existing body of knowledge (i.e. refer back to the literature review) and contextualise the implications for the field of study/domain within which the research has taken place. 4. Express what is left to do by you or by other researchers/authorities. Thus identify other paradigms and approaches and also highlight future research avenues and agendas. 5. If appropriate, present a typology of practical recommendations. These recommendations could have policy, planning or management implications and are thus worthy of attention. Your conclusion is partly a summary of the outcomes of the study (findings/implications) and possible courses of action. Conclusions should relate not solely to the problem or question investigated but also to methodologies and the body of knowledge (theories/models). You must demonstrate the extent to which the aim has been achieved (or not!). The examiner would then be able to see clearly how you have arrived at the final situation/conclusion. The conclusions should not be unsupported statements but should follow logically from the previous analysis chapters. You should present a concise overview and a critical evaluation of the significance of your research findings. All your conclusions and possible recommendations should naturally be drawn from your investigation. Comment on any mistakes, errors, omissions in the methodology used and address three main questions: 1. Are there any lessons learnt' 2. How would you have done it differently in the light of experience' (e.g. changes in questionnaire design or the chosen sample). 3. Any other sources of information that should have been tapped' Comprehensive responses to such questions demonstrate that you are very much aware of possible shortcomings or other prevailing approaches that relate to, or further the depth of, your work. You have had to be selective at the outset and it is likely that as your research has progressed you have recognised concerns or hypotheses about certain things which could be further tested or resolved by more work (for which you do not presently have the time). Indeed, constructive research programmes expose more questions than they succeed in answering! SECTION FOUR REFERENCES, BIBLIOGRAPHY AND APPENDICES As you write your Dissertation you must refer to the sources for your quotes, and sources of material or arguments. This can be done by the use of footnotes or end notes. The IB staff assessing your work prefer to see the references on the page as they read the work. Some departments insist that all material should be cited in a standard format using the Harvard System (explained in detail in Section Six: References and Citations). It is essential that you understand this procedure, BUT the central principal must be a system of transparent and accurate referencing and cross referencing. Many staff PREFER to see the specific reference including pages for direct quotes ON the page that they are reading, rather than a simple author reference which forces them to turn to the back of the Dissertation for more detail. These automatically numbered footnotes can be inserted automatically by using: Insert/ Footnote/ auto-number or Insert/Footnote/Endnote/auto-number facility from the Word toolbar. Footnote/footnote is the preferred option Here you need put the Author, title and date PLUS the pages you are quoting from or referring to. If you quote again from the same work then you need only put the name of the author PLUS ‘op.cit’ ( ie ‘the work already cited’) date and page. If the same page is referred to immediately after a first quote or location reference then ‘ibid’( ie ‘in the same place’) plus page is suitable. This fashion of referencing is now deemed ‘old fashioned’ and the Harvard system explained below is orientated towards the construction of a bibliography, where students are seemingly discouraged from putting in page references, or which forces the reader to refer constantly to the back of the Dissertation. Please make sure that you refer to the page used in the texts you use on the page you use them. Literature and all other sources used should be cited in the bibliography in a conventional and consistent manner. In this section, all your references should be listed in alphabetical order with all the texts or works by any one author listed in chronological sequence. It is easy enough to copy and reorder your footnotes removing page references and duplicate references to a single text, to construct a final Bibiliography at the end of the Dissertation. The standard format using the Harvard System is explained in detail in Section Six: References and Citations. Thus bibliographies should be presented as follows: | | |1. BOOKS | 1. Author(s)- surname(s) and initial(s) 2. Year of publication 3. Title of book (italics) 4. Edition 5. Name of Publisher 6. Place of Publication _ Example Kotler, P. 1991, Marketing Management: Analysis, Planning, Implementation and Control, 7th edition, Prentice-Hall International, London. With respect to chapters in edited books always add (ed.) or (eds.) in the bibliography _ Example Smith, P. 1996, The UK Software Industry, in Roland, T.R., (ed.), Industry Profiles, Background Books, London, pp. 1-10. If you go to this link there are multi-media resources for referencing - http://learning.north.londonmet.ac.uk/bssmstudy/lectnotes_marketing.htm The Learning Development Unit http://www.londonmet.ac.uk/college-of-london/ldu/study-skills-in-depthn/home.cfm this page has resources plus a current brochure to download on the right of the page The Leicester Tutorial is an subject specific online tutorial to help students avoid plagiarism http://www2.le.ac.uk/offices/ssds/slc/resources/writing/plagiarism/plagiarism-tutorial | | |2. JOURNALS | 1. Author(s)- surname(s) and initials(s) 2. Year of publication 3. Title of article (in inverted commas) 4. Title of journal (italics) 5. Volume 6. Number, part or issue (in brackets) 7. Page-to-page numbers _ Example Sheth, J.N., 1992, ‘Emerging Marketing Strategies in a Changing Macroeconomic Environment: A Commentary’, International Marketing Review, Vol. 9 (1), 57-63. | | |5. ELECTRONIC MAIL | a) Personal communications: try to use email address _ Example m.stephenson@unl.ac.uk; a.johnson@unl.ac.uk b) WordWideWeb (Internet) pages: give URL and date of page update, together with author/title details where possible. _ Example http://www/psychstat.smsu.edu/introbook/sbk03m.htm (Updated 23/12/96) Stockburger, D W, Introduction to Statistics: Concepts, Models and Applications. c) Information downloaded from electronic journal/published papers: i) Author(s)- surname(s) and initial(s) ii) Title of article iii) Electronic address iv) Date _ Example Bruckman, A., Identity Workshop: Emergent Social and Psychological Phenomena in Text-Based Virtual Reality, ftp from ftp.xerox.parc.com, April 1992. | | |APPENDICES | Appendices are materials which are supportive but not essential to the main report. It is important to ensure the material is both significant and relevant (and brief!). Appendices are a useful way of including information such as interview transcripts, questionnaire designs, statistical tables, financial information and any other detailed material relevant to the work; material which would be tedious to read in the main body of the text. Appendices should not be extensive and should be restricted to material otherwise unobtainable through standard referencing. Make sure that diagrams are placed in the text so that the argument runs well. Single tables should also best be put in the text. Appendices are numbered independently from the text, using a continuation of the lower-case Roman numerals employed for the pre-introduction pages. There may be several appendices, each dealing with a discrete set of data or information and referred to in sequence as Appendix 1, 2, etc. Your Appendices should be referred to at some point in the main body of your text; if this is not done, or seems intrusive, you should perhaps consider whether you need to include this material at all. They should not be used as a repository for superfluous and unnecessary material which would be best omitted. Any material included in the Appendices should be strictly relevant. You should also refrain from putting original material (such as pamphlets, leaflets, or hand-written notes) into your appendices. The overall presentation of your work is seldom enhanced by including ‘appendices’ which resemble a scrapbook! If you feel that such illustrative material is relevant, the best approach is to photocopy it, and attach a legend, or alternatively scan it in electronically, acknowledging the source. In either event you should keep such material to a minimum and avoid padding. Do remember that it is the quality and academic rigour of your work which is being assessed not the quantity! Students have, in the past, used their appendices to maintain their word limit in the main body of their work, you must avoid doing this. Therefore, you should use appendices with restraint. SECTION FIVE WRITING-UP | | |KEY STAGES | 1. Produce an initial plan/outline for each chapter that you attempt. Most people do not find it easy to write a plan. Write your points and arguments in no particular order and then reorder and refine them. Extensive reading with respect to your subject and topic will help in this process. 2. Start writing as soon as possible- it is never too early. Writing often helps the process of thought. Skills of writing projects are not easily acquired and therefore you must expect to make several attempts before success. You should not be concerned about the need to re-write a number of times. This process is time-consuming but necessary. 3. Seek continual approval or constructive disapproval of your work from your supervisor. You do not have to write your chapters or parts of chapters in the order which they will eventually appear. Give drafts of your chapters to your supervisor to check as you go along, do not leave it until you have finished as it will be too late to remedy deficiencies of either content or style. 4. Make sure that your work is coherent. After you have completed each chapter make sure it stands as a coherent whole. Ensure that there is a logical development within it and that it follows logically from one point to the next. Be ruthless and take out parts which, on reflection, do not make sense or do not fit the argument. Therefore, when you have completed a first draft copy of your dissertation you should ask yourself the following questions: a. Have I interconnected themes, issues and concerns carefully between each chapter' b. Do my key points or arguments make sense as I move from point to point and from one chapter to the next' c. Have I signalled the main moves clearly to the reader' Although each of your chapters may make sense, when you put all of the chapters together you may find that they don’t! The dissertation must form one coherent, logically developed argument. It is always advisable to have a proof reader, someone who does not necessarily have expert knowledge of your area of study but can spot typing errors and grammatical mistakes. Use 12 or 14 point font (not 10 point Word default) and 1.5 or double spacing between lines. Simple fonts ie Times, Calibri or Arial is preferred. Remember your examiners’ eyes! Submission Submission of TWO copies of the Dissertation on the due date is essential. The Copies may be bound in any format, soft or hard, but must not be submitted unbound eg loose, stapled without a cover, or in a ring binder. Such submissions will be refused. The two copies are for marking by the two internal examiners, and for the external examiner’s review. One will be returned to the student upon request after the results are published. The other copy is retained for 2 years by the University then destroyed. In principle the Dissertations are public documents and in this period can be seen upon request to the Business School by any member of the public. Unlike PhD Dissertations these copies are no longer kept in the University Library for reference. The Dissertation Module WebLearn site shows example of previous dissertations for the benefit of candidates preparing their own Dissertations. [pic][pic][pic]