Project_Organisation_&_Behaviour

Traditionally, the elements of Time, Cost, Scope and/or Quality constitute the ‘Iron Triangle’ in project management. Interestingly, Marasco (2004) proposes a fifth constraint of Risk, dubbing his model “the Project Pyramid”. Given that the decisions People make represent risks within projects (humans being complex, dynamic organisms whose actions are subject to changes in mood, behaviour and energy), it is surprising that they are not typically included in the constraint model. “The human resource is capable of directing and withdrawing its energy with regard to a project, whereas a non-human resource is not.” (Moore, 2002) Considering People are autonomous and govern interactions between project constraints, one could perhaps envisage the Iron Triangle as more of an ‘Iron Pyramid’. Figure 1 - ‘Iron Pyramid’ of Project Management As such, when a Project Manager (PM) is faced with managing a project team of disengaged or antagonistic staff, they must consider techniques which aid in directing positive input towards their project whilst deflecting negative energy to manage conflict. A good PM facilitates teamwork through influential leadership and exercises emotional intelligence, adding “interpersonal skills to the technical and problem solving capabilities that already exist.” (Dalcher, 2010) They should be able to negotiate with difficult team members by ensuring that they are consistently motivated and engaged in their roles and responsibilities to achieve project success. In order to optimise overall project performance, the APM (2010) recommends adopting a Value Management approach in “motivating people, developing skills, advancing teams and promoting innovation.” A motivated and energised team derives drive and purpose from knowing that their work provides an integral contribution towards positive change within an organisation (Dalcher, 2010). They require consistent, positive energy levels to sustain momentum (Managementfirst.com, 2006) therefore PMs must lead team members to support their project by reflecting this behaviour. However, PMs who exhibit better analytical or organisational skills than leadership abilities may find difficulty in motivating teams, especially in matrix organisations where team members are delegated project work in addition to their normal duties. Ideally, roles and responsibilities should be clearly defined during project definition, concurrent with resource requirements and delivery timelines. Nevertheless, such organisational structures can still create issues whereby team members have trouble recognising the authority of a PM over that of their functional managers (RGU, 2010). In these situations, a PM may find it a better strategy to leverage the energy of those around them in order to develop project ‘allies’ (d’Herbemont et al, 1998) or champions. Markham, Green & Basu (1991) define a champion as a strong advocate who generates positive behavioural support for a project. In direct contrast, they also define an antagonist as an individual who generates negative feelings towards a project in strong opposition of it. In order to enlist the help of champions and allies, d’Herbemont et al (1998) discuss utilising ‘lateral’ projects as a strategy for introducing change by understanding the reasoning behind the behaviour and actions of People. Lateral projects involve the “development of energy with the goal…of placing allies in a situation from which they can support the project,” (d’Herbemont et al, 1998). PMs should therefore remember that their own enthusiasm is contagious when selling to allies, which will in turn sell the project for them. A PM can hence leave some of the ‘People Management’ to those who possess more finely-tuned leadership qualities or who hold more effective influence over certain antagonists, so that they may focus their energy on other project requirements. At times, a PM may find that a different approach is required should they become ‘stuck’ with difficult individuals who are unresponsive to efforts to engage their support. In such cases, adopting a ‘mirage’ project approach may present a solution. When developing mirage projects, PMs must negotiate re-engagement of antagonists by first understanding the reasons for their behaviour. For instance, in large projects requiring considerable implementation periods, team members may become disinterested over time; stakeholders may become frustrated due to lack of communication and this will in turn have an adverse affect upon Time, Cost, Scope and Quality. In extreme cases resentment may even develop amongst others lacking involvement or purpose regarding project outcomes. Such individuals may simply require ownership of a small task to feel that they are still an integral part of a project. A sense of ownership provides People with inherent pride and motivation when they feel they are part of creating positive change (Cook, 2002; Dalcher, 2010). If there is no suitable project task they can perform at the time, creating a mirage project may be the key. This could be as simple as asking an individual to test a project deliverable, or help in creating a communication plan for their area of the organisation in order to help them feel that they are contributing value. In this way, mirage projects can be constructive in gaining valued support from individuals who may have an impact on the project at a later stage. When managed effectively, they provide a means for keeping interest and energy levels high by essentially creating work to keep People engaged until they are required. As mirage projects differ from lateral ones in that they are disconnected from the main project (Moore, 2002), they can also be used to help deflect antagonistic energy. Given successful use relies on participants remaining unaware that their output does not affect the main project however, this tactic could backfire should they discover that they are simply being ‘kept busy’. Hence where possible, a mirage project should relate to overall project objectives rather than be completely standalone; it should present opportunities for individuals to demonstrate their skills in order to keep them motivated in supporting project outcomes. When choosing to implement a lateral or mirage project, PMs must contemplate how their use may affect other constraints of the Iron Pyramid. Secondment of team members to a project may result in the requirement for further resource in order to maintain normal business operations (impacting Cost/Time), or place pressure on functional teams to cover these duties (affecting Scope/Quality). It is important to ensure that resource is applied productively and the consequences weighed regarding whether an antagonist’s time is perhaps better spent in other areas. Such a consideration is also crucial in the engagement of project allies - assuming they have considerably senior responsibilities, a PM must be careful not to pressure them when garnering support for their project. Reflecting upon these considerations, it is a PM’s duty to ensure adequate direction for all project team members and that effective communication is taking place on all levels (Palmisano, 2002). Byatt, Hamilton & Hodgkinson (2010) suggest regular meetings with resources whereby the frequency of meetings is commensurate with their criticality to the project. They also suggest that celebrating project milestones is essential to keeping team members engaged and motivated. As such, it is important that project members still interact regularly with their functional teams. Not only will their colleagues provide natural support, but when a project member is happily engaged, they will inadvertently sell their project’s benefits through innate enthusiasm to a wider audience. Conclusion As the decisions of People and their energy release affects project behaviour and impacts the constraints of Time, Cost, Scope and Quality, developing an understanding of how to influence this energy is paramount to building a successful project framework. Good PMs facilitate teamwork by leading individuals to feel motivated and engaged in their roles and responsibilities. Enlisting the support of project allies can also help to manage antagonists and generate support for successful project outcomes. In other cases, delegating responsibility in the form of lateral or mirage projects and giving individuals ownership of tasks can help to convert negative energy into positive contributions. Antagonists can sometimes simply become disengaged through a lack of project involvement and communication. As such, engaging them in small tasks may help to develop their sense of value in contributing towards project success. References ANDERSON, L., 2010. Project Success; It Begins and Ends with Leadership. [online]. Ontario: ProjectTimes.com. Available from: http://www.projecttimes.com/lisa-anderson/project-success-it-begins-and-ends-with-leadership.html [Accessed 7 December 2010] ASSOCIATION FOR PROJECT MANAGEMENT (APM), 2010. Body of Knowledge. 5th ed. Buckinghamshire: Association for Project Management. BERNATE, G., 2010. Change Management. PM World Today. 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