Political_Economy_Essay

Institute of China and Asia-Pacific Studies National Sun Yat-sen University Theories of Political and Economic Development in Asia-Pacific Mid-term Exam 1. According to Martin Staniland and Robert Gilpin, What is Political Economy' And also in our doing research, according to his political economic approach, what should we pay our great attention to' Why is political economy crucial tor our analysis on the political and development in developing countries' 3 2. Conceptualize the concept of development passed on the articles written by Charles K. Wilber, Kenneth P. Jameson, Ronald H. Chilcote, Howard J. Wiarda and Allan Kaplan. Make your own critique on their perspectives. 5 I-Orthodox Vision 5 1. Political Development 5 2. Developments and Nationalism 6 3. Modernization 6 II-Radical Vision 7 1. Underdevelopment 7 2. The Dependency 8 3. Imperialism 8 Conclusion 9 1. According to Martin Staniland and Robert Gilpin, What is Political Economy' And also in our doing research, according to his political economic approach, what should we pay our great attention to' Why is political economy crucial tor our analysis on the political and development in developing countries' The Economy Politic is a recognized academic discipline, at least in the Anglo-Saxon world. It has a coherent set of proposals and concepts, theories and research programs. It becomes autonomous as a discipline toward international relations from the 1970s when the international economy is experiencing a series of developments that lead to the question of the relative decline of American power in the face of emergence of new economic competitors (Japan and Germany). This will lead to enter the center of the research agenda of the International Economy politic the issue of power, its economic fundamentals and how strategies of power affecting international economic relations. In fact, the first oil shock, the end of the Bretton Woods monetary agreements and the appeasement between the USSR and the United States relative lead to issues of international security in favor of thinking on international economic stability. Economy Politic also has it built from the outset on the theory of permanent confrontation with the facts, they engaged the researchers in this discipline a restoring force leading them to refuse the abstraction and the formulation of "sticky" hypotheses not observed reality. This dialogue-made theory constitutes the originality of EP in the analysis of international economic relations. It is the main limitation for the Political Economy is essentially interpretative discipline that certainly identifies causalities, but at posteriori and ex post. The canonical definition of what Economy politic international is given by Robert Gilpin that refers to "reciprocal and dynamic interaction in international relations between the accumulation of wealth and the pursuit of power." These interactions are most frequently considered in terms of opposition between the state (associated with the phenomenon of power) and the market (associated with the creation of wealth). Indeed, according to R. Gilpin, "in the modern world, the parallel existence and mutual interaction of the state and the market create the political economy". But there is no reason to limit the balance of power relations between states. Instead, the field of power relations, combinations of asymmetric effects and lack of units in the presence embrace all national and international actors. Transnationalization of productive activities, trade and finance, the emergence of a private dynamic (firms, networks, financial globalization) and a public dynamic (the process of regionalization, international agreements, the internationalization of law), renewed but does have not ended the problem of double articulation between the national and international, and between economics and politics. The concepts of international regimes in global governance, international public goods / global goods… entered everyday language originate conceptual and operational capability in the field of international economic cooperation in the successive developments of the International Political Economy. The conceptual contribution of the IPE is in the apprehension of the phenomenon of power and the institutionalization of international economic relations given the anarchy and asymmetries related to inequalities of power. In the register of international economic relations, hegemony carries a dual meaning. We should pay our great attention in this dual meaning for understand the political and economic development in developing countries. First, it shows the power of a state within a certain pattern of interstate relations. On the other hand, it refers to the ideological domination of a group that ensures the legitimacy and authority necessary to govern with his own world view as "common sense", the only reasonable way consider things. Robert Gilpin as not a benevolent stabilizer qualifies the influence from the developed countries by the hegemony. It ensures the provision of international public goods because it serves its interests and power objectives. But we need to pay attention about some details, in my opinion this approach is not totally complete and perfect, because as we can see today after and before the crisis the trend goes to a better improvement for the developing countries, we can take the example of China or other countries from BRIC (Brazil, Russia, India) who have more and more power, influence and also independence in the world scene. 2. Conceptualize the concept of development passed on the articles written by Charles K. Wilber, Kenneth P. Jameson, Ronald H. Chilcote, Howard J. Wiarda and Allan Kaplan. Make your own critique on their perspectives. By provoking passions, fads, illusions or delusions, the concept of development confirm, well beyond the diversity of content it was assigned multiple reflections and it has aroused, the strong influence of a phenomenon whose lineaments may still be controversial definition of protean interpretations. Fifty years ago, the term of development was virtually unknown in social science theory and in practice of economic policy, and today its use is a common place and the abundant literature that he has devoted mark, both for scientists and for public opinion, an acute awareness of what still remains the largest if not the most dramatic problems of humanity: the under-development. At the heart of the explosion intellectual and political trends favored by major socio-economic order after the war, the problems of development / underdevelopment was "the key issue" that polarize the debate of ideas and politics begat a series of theories. We will start by a reminder of theories of Development and Underdevelopment, by both Orthodox and radical theories, and then going toward alternative conceptions. The Orthodox vision including in a first part the Political Development who emphasize and distinguish political from economic development, second part is about the Development and Nationalism explaining the links between them and the various forms they can take, finishing by explain the contrasting approaches of the Modernization. Radical theories will include explanation about the underdevelopment that try to take upside down the problem of the development across non-Marxist and Marxist perspectives, we will also discuss the issue of dependency of the third world countries, and finally study the relation between Imperialism and all forms of controls or dominations. And then finish by alternatives conceptions; they will be toward a Nonethnocentric theory of development and a Comparative Politics. I-Orthodox Vision 1. Political Development The Political development can be represented by 3 different way, one correlating the development and the democracy, the second studying aspects of political development and changes, the third drawing conclusion from crisis to the political development. Many writers describes the Democracy as a major factor of the political development, as institution building and citizen development, if and only if a mass mobilization and participation are present in the society as can emphasize Pye in Aspect of Political Development. Also quantitative applications as changes are related to developmental theory, this view found by many writers as Packenham, Sprengler, Tanter and Cnudde, is inherent to the last one. The last part of the theories based on the political development talk about how more the polities are develops more the skills to occur the crises are improves (crisis of distribution, penetration, participation). 2. Developments and Nationalism The Nationalism view like common cultural traditions such as the consciousness of the nation in the minds of the people, territorials units, is divide in a bunch of classification by scientists and historians (Indigenous, Traditional, Religious, Liberal, Integral, Bourgeois, Technological, Radical, Humanitarian, the new Nationalism). Describe like an impetus for all developments (political, economic, social, cultural, and psychological) writers have the common trend in the nationalist literature, they interprets the development in relation to nationalist like its generally viewed by Marx and Engels for the European nations. 3. Modernization Modernizing means a whole change process and the large-scale change that involves a specific company, profoundly transform its structures and modes of social organization. The modernization is also closely linked to the notion of economic development that is also a process of significant change and tremendous growth in production capacity (implying both technical skills such as skills of the organization), this which has a high proportion of the population to be eligible for an amount of goods and services over the recent past and has also radically changed the structures, economic and social institutions, modes of thought, ways of life, cultural patterns, behaviors and expectations, but its also across the literature three examples who reflect a contrasting approach. Walt W. Rostow in Stage of Economic Growth outlines 5 stages for the development: 1. Traditional society, 2. Preconditions for take off, 3. Take off, 4.drive toward maturity, 5. Age of high mass consumption. These developmental stages are use by many political scientist today, its one of the description of the development by the modernization across stages theory. Samuel P. Huntington slighted modernization in the form of mobilization and participation, where order and institutionalism are essential to all working political systems. David Apter does the difference between development and modernization, for him development is the ongoing way of the functional roles in a community such as proliferation and integration. While he defined the modernization as a very special step of the development, modernization implies for him 3 conditions: 1. “a social system that can constantly innovate without falling apart”, 2. “Differentiated, flexible social structures”, 3. “and a social framework to provide the skills and knowledge necessary for living in a technologically advanced world. Orthodox theories of development were uncritically and nearly universally accepted, but since late 1960s lose influence in comparatives politics. Abundant criticism about theses theories, requires a round of enlargement about other theories, its why in a second part we will see the Radicals Vision theories. II-Radical Vision 1. Underdevelopment Francois Perroux defines development as "the totality of mental and social changes of a population that make it suitable to grow sustainably and its cumulative actual product overall." Notions of both quantitative and qualitative development, and therefore under-development, are difficult to assess. Always for François Perroux, the underdeveloped economies are characterized as being "disjointed, dominated and unable to cover the costs of man." Generally, the underdeveloped countries can not meet the basic needs of their populations (food, housing, health, education...). Development economics has flourished after the Second World War, including access to the independence of former colonies and the formation of what Alfred Sauvy called the Third World. It can be seen in three phases. Thus, Myrdal said, "international trade does not lead to development. It tends to affect delay (back setting) and reinforces the stagnation or regression. It is therefore necessary to implement various forms of protectionism to support domestic markets and to social reforms (→ Protectionism educator). After a period of protected growth, the developing countries will open wider to the outside, on an equal footing. Raul Prebisch and Hans Singer has developed a theory of declining terms of trade between primary products / manufactures and thus for developing countries in general (and which do not fall in the same proportion of primary products such inferiority because of their low income elasticity ...). The underdeveloped periphery is exploited by the capitalist center. Emmanuel Arghiri develops the thesis of unequal exchange. There is unequal exchange when the pay gap is greater than the difference between the productivities. The capital is mobile, the development of industrial countries is permitted by the gain obtained by the exploitation of labor in underdeveloped countries. So there is a transfer of value outskirts → Centre. Amin Samir up in two books (''The accumulation global'' and ''The disconnection''), this approach center / periphery and exploiter / dependent / outgoing / exploited / impoverishing himself, advocating the disconnection is to say the break with the capitalist system, under-development as being behind the development. 2. The Dependency In the years 60-70, the authors of the dependency theory renew the concept of imperialism as exploitative relationship primarily economic. It is primarily a criticism of the continuing domination of the countries of the periphery. Initiated by the work of an Economic Commission for Latin America and especially by the writings of F. Cardoso and C. Furtado, Brazil, the theory of dependency found in I. Wallenstein and S. Amin the two authors who most profoundly influenced this school and met a fairly large echo. Extraversion economies of Third world are a form of addiction. The theory of world economy is validated by experiment; an analysis in terms of center and periphery may appear relevant. The deteriorating terms of trade and the disintegration of the economies of accumulation in the Third world global, Samir Amin worked to dismantle the logic of operation of the enrichment process of the capitalist center subject to the logic the accumulation and monopolization at the expense of peripheries proletarianized. This implies new forms of dependency. It is now in the context of a "dependent capitalism" More than underdevelopment and exploitation, we must speak of underdevelopment. This involves not two worlds separated by the barrier of industrialization but a system where the poor development of the South is closely articulated with the development of the North. This poor development implies that the forms of dependence are more diversified and take the form of a political and cultural domination and not just economic. The Marxist ideology that underlies the theory of addiction is now obsolete. Analyses of the theorists of the dependency school had the merit of highlighting the important economic factor in the heart of the formation of the global economic system and the inequalities and disorders that accompany it. But we cannot ignore the dependency theory itself has experienced denials in part due to the fact that it offers a purely saved of North / South, while the current dependency ratios are multifarious. 3. Imperialism Theories of imperialism generally relate to the activities of some dominant nations in the world. While it is now clearly the issue of economic imperialism of the United States, we observe that it is done much more developed capitalist countries as a whole as the sole world power. Imperialism is the tendency of a State, or dominant economic groups of one nation over another region. It manifests itself in different forms and connotations in history; in fact, its dominant logic may be political and military, cultural or economic. Hobson and Hilferding were the first to be interested in this notion, however, the main analysis is that of Marx, which will focus on the dominance of capitalist countries, sharing real world which lead to the colonies and inspire two theories say Marxists that of Rosa Luxemburg and Lenin. The Marxist theory of imperialism According to Marx, capitalism, by its dynamic, tends to become global. The theory of imperialism lies in the extension of this analysis: it shows the acceleration between the XIX and XX century, the division of the world into colonies and spheres of influence between the major capitalist powers. This assumption gives rise to two theories. Rosa Luxemburg's theory: the commercial aspects of the phenomenon Rosa Luxemburg (1871 - 1919) based in Germany, with Karl Liebknecht's Spartacus League, and then participated in the founding of the German Communist Party. The juxtaposition of world economic and cultural backgrounds enhances the North / South divide and the dominance of rich countries on poor countries. Conclusion It is clear that the years after the war led to the construction of development economics. Thus, at the international level, the process of decolonization affects Asia and Africa, the Bretton-Woods institutions are being established, the United Nations must address issues of growth in backward countries, their industrialization and stability prices of raw materials; new regional institutions, such as ECLAC (Economic Commission for Latin America), process of regional integration and strategies of import substitution. In fact, developmentalism (expression borrowed from Assidon, 2002), which developed after the Second World War drew mainly his references in the economic history of industrialized countries. Thus, the development theories of the time, incorporated in addition to the modernization paradigm, two assumptions major: the idea that accelerated growth can only result from the expansion of industrial activities, and that of voluntarism or intervention in the process of allocating state resources, like Assidon.E said "called to correct market forces that had previously distributed unevenly industry across the globe. " We have reminded summarizes the main economic development theories advanced since the fifties. In fact, we group these theories into three categories: theories of economic take-off developed in the years 1950-60, the critical theories of addiction, built in the 1970s, and finally the neoclassical theory of development that triumphs today the ruins of two previous courses. Ultimately speak, that reflection fecund deployed, relying Diversity existing theories. Indeed two major directions have opened during last period regarding development economics: First proceeds contestation role market and State in allocation optimal resource. New institutional economics is FIG emblematic this current Research showing there several coordination modes and not one who embody economic transactions. Its why our whole argumentation structured around kernel hard instead institutional strengthening in development Economic and Social. Second direction succession new proposals introducing values ​​into economic analysis. Thus A. SEN reports that development economics has privileged past accumulation goods and services available instead rights and capacities individuals. What tent integrate development lens human. Thereby establishing good institutions should aim the broader development and not only economic development. Thus dichotomy state market seems leave room new type configuration "Hybrid» where market and democracy not exclusive apart. Ultimately, countries Exporters oil Like GABON is called operate reforms along towards good governance. Thereof conditioned less exploitative and fairer energy resources because bad governance was prejudicial context for the Economic and Social.