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Massive movements of African Americans generally came to America as a result of the growing cultural way of slavery in the United States. Slavery is a condition of bondage in which one individual is considered the property of another. Until modern times, slavery was a modern phenomenon, practiced by many people around the world. It was even accepted in Africa as the fate of prisoners of war and as appropriate punishment for criminal activity. Unlike the captives brought to the Americas, however, such slaves frequently retained important rights and were often able to work off their obligations. They were not looked upon as subhuman or racially inferior; rather they were regarded as outside the tribal clan or group and therefore not subject to its protections. Once it became clear that huge fortunes could be made in the Americas from agricultural plantations and farms, the demand for slaves escalated dramatically. Since the Americans lacked the military strength to take African slaves by force, they went into partnership with local kings and village chiefs who received a commission on each slave sold. To protect their own people from slave raiders, African rulers soon realized that they had to have guns, which they could only secure from these people in exchange for slaves. Thus, this resulted in huge quantities of weapons pouring into Africa. On the slave ships from Africa to the Americas, slave deaths were due to severe dehydration. Slaves abroad the ship were generally given one pint of water and two meals of boiled vegetables a day. Frequently, bad weather or lack of winds caused delays, and food and water ran short. What food and water there was, was frequently contaminated, resulting in bacillary and amebic dysentery. Temperatures in the holds of slave ships reached 110 to 120 degrees with air quality so bad that candles sometimes would not burn. So many slaves arrived in the Americas in extremely poor condition that special recuperation farms had to be set up to rehabilitate them so they could be sold. Thus, a great majority of slaves were sent to the South, where they were either a part of a smaller farm or placed upon plantations – the rest generally were sent as maids, butlers, nannies, etc. within the North where slaves were less prominent. Within the slave communities, each individual did as they were assigned. Many worked as housekeepers, farm workers, or even had particular skills. The majority of these people were generally born in Africa, but many were born in America as well. However, these slave communities were hardly stable, as individuals were shifted and moved, frequently grew, and were altered by the marriages, deaths, and estate settlements by their masters. Many held slave revolts as a result of their poor conditions, considering that many times, the African Americans outnumbered the whites by a great ratio. Eventually slavery was abolished, and although these individuals were free, they faced much discrimination and prejudices, usually through major acts of segregation or limiting of their natural rights. Within the dual labor market, African Americans experience much prejudice and discrimination as that statistics have shown that these individuals have disproportionately had began their careers on entry-level jobs within the secondary labor market. Thus, this is the result of employers utilizing hiring decisions on information that is available, such as race or demeanor, resulting in discrimination (downward force on wages) and the reducing the pool of primary sector workers in an upward force on wages (Crutchfield, Matsueda, Drakulich). Affirmative action can generally be seen as a way of promoting to minorities the availability of resources of education and employment. Motivation for affirmative action is the result of reducing the prior effects of the past, especially of the discrimination directed at African Americans, and their struggle for black power. In regards to action that corresponds with both redlining (denying opportunities or increasing services to a minority) as well as urban decay, environmental justice issues of racism exist, which impact African American minority communities’ public health. These individuals are given an instable community with less opportunity, poorer quality, and less accessible, indirectly the public health of the people (Dr. Jeffries). Double jeopardy exists in many forms that affect African Americans. Businesswomen that are African American, as well as a woman, face the double jeopardy aspect of race and gender within a place of employment. Men who are African American and are gay face double jeopardy themselves: racism and homophobia. Any African American individual who lives with a disability faces double jeopardy of the status of being a minority in race and disability. These are not the only examples of double jeopardy, as many other forms exist as well. A glass ceiling exists for many African Americans within their place of employment. Their boss will quickly dismiss any opportunity for advancing an individual within the corporate world to a position of either management and/or decision-making place. Although, when combined with affirmative action, many African American individuals are hired within a place of employment, this doesn’t necessarily ensure equality of opportunity to rise up in the corporate ranks (McCoy, 1995). Although I culturally identify with the ethnic group previously examined in this paper, I must admit that I do relate to the United States mainstream culture of today as well. Although, when I look at the past and view the horrendous acts of discrimination against my people, I cannot hold any grudges or allow it to bear me down in today’s world, despite present discrimination. I know that it is a work in progress, and that we have come so far within the past few centuries that I look forward to the next generations benefiting from the one I live in now. Reference Page Crutchfield, R, Matsueda, R, & Drakulich, K Race, Labor Markets, and Neighborhood Violence. University of Washington, Retrieved June 1, 2008, from http://faculty.washington.edu/matsueda/SNCP%20web%20files/race_labor_markets_edited.pdf. Dr. Jeffries, L The African Americans' Search for Truth and Knowledge. Retrieved June 1, 2008, from Africa Within Web site: http://africawithin.com/jeffries/aapart34.htm McCoy, Frank (1995, September). Black Enterprise. Shattering glass ceilings: white males and African American jobs - African Americans do not have equal opportunities in job advancement. Retrieved June 1, 2008, from Find Articles Web site: http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1365/is_n2_v26/ai_17210305