Overview_on_Forensic_Anthropology

“For me, everyday is Halloween”. This quote is an excerpt from William R. Maples, a famous forensic anthropologist, in his book “Dead Men Do Tell Tales”. In this paper we will discuss the importance of forensic anthropology and we will depict its contributions to our society today. According to the American Board of Forensic Anthropology, Forensic anthropology is the application of the science of physical or biological anthropology to the legal process. Physical or biological anthropologists who specialize in forensics primarily focus their studies on the human skeleton. “The American Board of Forensic Anthropology was formed in 1977 to serve as a certifying institution thusly formalizing forensic anthropology” ((1) Forensic Anthropology is a conglomerate field committed to unraveling the truth about human remains. The identification of awkwardly decomposed, skeletal human remains is imperative for not only humanitarian reasons but legal reasons as well. Forensic Anthropologists administer standard scientific techniques acquired in physical anthropology to distinguish human remains, and to aid in criminal investigations against individuals and against human rights. Forensic Anthropology above all banks on Osteology, the study of bones, to assemble its observations. Most people don’t realize that an ample amount of our daily lives leave delicate imprints on our bones. Bones can depict the age, and sex of an individual, their health and/or traumas endured. Differing muscle attachment marks, scratch markings, and thickness on bones can express things such as race, age, gender and even size. With this harvested information gathered from the bones, a forensic anthropologist can determine the identity of the individual and the manner of death. “When we apply methods of studying the skeleton to cases of unknown modern remains, we are using osteology in a legal context; therefore we are practicing forensic anthropology”. ((2) As mentioned earlier, forensic anthropology helps solve crimes against human rights. This study’s affiliation with issues of human rights and genocide is a fresh course it continues to move in. The Central Identification Laboratory of Hawaii, CILHI, is an organization that employs a legion of forensic anthropologists focusing on areas where mass extermination and other crimes against civilians have manifested. This particular laboratory strives to recover and identify war casualties from the Vietnam and Korean wars. Another such organization team, founded in 1991, is the Guatemalan Forensic Anthropology Team. This team works to examine the considerable portion of graves of civilians killed in Guatemala’s 30 year long Civil War. In the duration of this time, the military seized control of most, if not all, rural villages. The military annihilated countless to terrorize and control other rural civilians. The Guatemalan Forensic Anthropology Team estimates that over 40,000 disappeared and over 100,000 were killed during the thirty years of violence. There is several case synopses posted and discussed on their website. Through these synopses we are able to see how forensic anthropologists work and the different types of information they can find. ((6) For example, one of these cases occurred near a small village in Tunaja in 1992. Here at this village, 8 bodies were found with one victim that was found partially buried under a collapsed ravine by a creek bed. Although some of the remains had washed away, with the remains they had in fact found, forensic anthropologists were able to determine what happened to this person, whom they identified as a male, in the last three winks of his life. During the teams investigation, they salvaged his left femur which had still had a bullet plunged in it. Through the examination of how the bullet was lodged in the left femur bone, this team of forensic anthropologists was able to reconstruct the path of the bullet. They concluded that the man had been shot from behind and was most likely running when he had been hit. Keep in mind that different instruments leave different markings on bones. When the team recovered his skull, they examined the markings and concluded the man had been struck by a machete. Lastly, this team of forensic anthropologists believes that the last injury suffered by this man was a broken tibia. With all these pieces to the puzzle coming together the team proved what had happened to him. They determined that the man was struck with a machete, and in desperation started to run away from his attackers. While running away, they shot him. The victim then jumped down into the ravine where his body was found and broke his leg from the jump and possibly broke his neck. After his jump, part of the ravine wall was intently collapsed around him by the soldiers to hide any indication of his death. After the team proved what had happened to him, the victim’s family was then able to properly mourn. This team of forensic anthropologists notes that because of their investigations, they have been successful to prove many of the monstrosities of the civil war in Guatemala and they continue to work to uncover more information. ((7) Forensic anthropologists are also employed at sites of mass disaster. The identification of bodies in mass disaster cases are done mostly by dental records and fingerprints. However, when such information is unavailable, DNA analysis can be done. Mass disasters are chaotic and cluttered making the identification attempts more challenging. Now there are two types of mass disasters, closed and open. A closed mass disaster is when the identity and number of the victims is more readily known. For example, an airplane crash that commonly possesses a list of the passengers already available. An open mass disaster is when the identity and number of the victims is typically unknown. For example, the World Trade Center attack; the list of victims involved was undetermined until months after the attack. Forensic anthropologists prove to be useful at the site of the World Trade Center. This open mass disaster held many disadvantages for forensic anthropologists because there were no unblemished bodies, mostly fragmentary remains as a result of falling debris and/or burnt to the point of charcoal. Ultimately, the forensic anthropologists study the bone fragments and use markers to distinguish gender or age, which helps narrow down the victim/victims identity. The final determination is primarily done with the DNA samples. When pursuing a career in forensic anthropology, just like any other career choice you must complete certain levels of education. This includes more than just a bachelor’s degree, you need a Masters Degree or Doctorate in biological or physical anthropology; completion of this degree takes between 6-10 years. Most forensic anthropologists have a Ph.D. In this choice of study, the best way to access your education is appreciate that ultimately, you are an anthropologist first and that your specialty in the subfield forensic science is secondary. This means that all forensic anthropologists are still anthropologists but that doesn’t mean that all anthropologists are forensic anthropologists. It is imperative that despite the horrific nature of work, you as a forensic anthropologist remain emotionally detached from the work. Forensic anthropologists undergo extensive years of training primarily in the field of physical anthropology. Some forensic anthropologists work exclusively in criminal laboratories, and in museums. Most forensic anthropologists, in addition to deliberating with human remains, are college professors. Some forensic anthropologists are employed by the armed forces and in medical examiners offices. It is apparent that identifying human remains requires extensive research and knowledge. The University of Tennessee is famous for their Anthropological Research Facility. This center, informally referred to as the Body Farm, is composed of 3 acres of land on which bodies are left in various states and places. It was founded in 1980 by William Bass. The primary purpose of the “Body Farm” was to answer the handful of questions about how the human body decomposes after death in different environmental states. Students in this applied area carefully examine and study these bodies to determine the various rates of decay as well as other evidence that may aid forensic anthropologists in making conclusions. “The initial use of the facility as a training classroom began with the Bureau,” said Dr. Murray K. Marks, a forensic anthropologist and protégé of Dr. Bass who helps run the FBI course. In fact, it was in 1999 that the FBI, after participating in several large-scale body recovery operations overseas, linked up with the Body Farm to get expert instruction on human remains recovery”((3). This research facility receives quite a few donated bodies. The extensive research derived from the studies taking place in the Body Farm is still successfully contributing and answering more questions that arise in new case work. So your next arising question may be how exactly does a forensic anthropologist approach a case' I will now break down a general overview of the step by step process forensic anthropologists take in reaching an explanation for the case they are presented. First there is the inventory and profile of the bones received. A forensic anthropologist makes a complete inventory of the bones being studied to determine a final report in the case. When working with the bones, descriptions are specific and detailed. General non-specific words such as “cranium” or “skull” are not used in the report. To elaborate, let’s look at a case dealing with bones like “cranium” or “skull”. If the three bones of the skull given are available in good condition, then each of those bones will have a separate identification and description as if it had no pathology. For instance, if the right mastoid, the left parietal and the occipital were the remains of the skull being studied, they would be independent when listed in the inventory. But if the skull is complete, then that would be stated as well. After a forensic anthropologist has completed their inventory of the bone fragments, they then must determine information such as race and sex. These two distinctions go hand in hand with each other because in order to determine one you need to know the other. In the preliminary determination, direct observation of certain features of the bone help. However, in order to be able to tackle any arising problems, several measurements are taken from the pelvis and skull. The most important direct observation is in the pelvis. Yet in direct observation, with the application of physical anthropology and osteology, an educated eye and touch can distinguish a female from a male using the mastoid process, gonial flare and supraorbital margin parts of the skull. All the measurements and data are then compared and plugged into the formulae for the final determination. The next step is determining the age of the given skeleton/bones. If the jaw and teeth are present, then the forensic anthropologist will examine them first. A comparative study using the skull sutures is applied to determine age. Sutures are the “seams” where the bones of the skull meet. Next we must determine stature and weight. We can determine stature using the formula “Regression Formula for Estimating Maximum Living Stature from Maximum Long Bone Length”. A forensic anthropologist will then have 12 long bones in total, 6 upper and 6 lower. Using the average of each bone, and including the standard error, the forensic anthropologist can conclude a fairly accurate estimation of the height of the subject. This information is then applied to estimate the weight, which is a function of determining the stature. Thus the end result will be a range of weights and heights based primarily on the average standard error. While studying the bones, the most important and difficult question to answer is the time of death. Bones do not decay the same way soft tissue and skin does. Yet they are subjected to taphonomy and weathering. Factors such as animal scattering of bones are capable of destroying the context of the scene and things such as gnaw markings can destroy the actual bone. The acidity of the soil will affect the bone and if the body is buried micro-organisms can get at it. The condition of the bone depends on various things such as the temperature, exposure and type of burial. Hence the purpose of the “Body Farm” discussed earlier which is solely dedicated to determine the time of death. We accredit this research facility for the knowledge and understanding of bodies in all stages of decay. As had been said earlier, students at this research facility record factors such as body temperatures, smells, weather conditions and animal activity. In the early stage of the decay process, a fairly good amount of soft tissue and skin remain and the smells are at their atrocious stage. When a body is not buried but left on the surface, insect activity will have an effect and within 2 weeks the body will be partially skeletalized, which is when the bones of the body are still integrated by ligaments and cartilage. The body will completely skeletalize within 8 months if left on the surface. If the body is buried, it takes anywhere between 1-2 years to completely skeletalize. In barren areas the body may become mummified. Depending on the acidity in the soil, it can speed up the bone rot process. Scatter is an important focus in the estimation of time of the death and burial. In other words, the types and number of bones available at the site indicate the amount of time the body has been there; think smaller bones get lost first. The last step the forensic anthropologist takes is the determination of the manner and cause of death. When we refer to manner of death, we mean there are 5 different possibilities to take under consideration. They are accidental, suicide, homicide, unknown and natural deaths. The cause of death primarily refers to disease or injury, or a combination of both, that resulted in death. This could take up to months and even years because it is easier to determine the cause of death with a fleshed body; when the flesh and organs are not present this makes determining the cause of death more difficult. In conclusion, Forensic Anthropology is a conglomerate field committed to unraveling the truth about human remains and will continue to and to aid in criminal investigations against individuals and against human rights.