Napoleon,_the_Enlightened_Despot

Kathy Webb The Age of Revolution-Humanities 4315 Dr. Hal Smith 8 November 2010 Napoleon, the Enlightened Despot At a time when France was in the throes of revolution and the common people desired a new direction for their country, Napoleon Bonaparte, a Corsican and considered lowly in French societal position, through talent became the self-proclaimed ruler of France by seizing power in 1799. 1 From the time of Napoleons youth, through his career in the army, until his imperialistic rule, Napoleon encountered fortuitous opportunities that catapulted his rise to power. This power ended the revolution in its present form, but gave rise to an Enlightened Despot who installed some of the revolutionary ideas into his reign, while he furthered his own individual interests and fulfilled his destiny.2 As a Corsican, Napoleon was born into a family oriented society ruled by democratic principles. The father dominated the family making all the decision at home and abroad, while the mother stayed in the domestic realm at home.3 Even though revolutionaries, the family protected its own and supported the French in its takeover of Corsica. This allowed Napoleon, as a form of reward to his family for their service and support, to receive an education at the “Brienne Preparatory School in Champagne”4 which laid the groundwork for Napoleons military career that was the catalyst for his rise to power. Napoleon received excellent marks, especially in mathematics, giving him a scholarship to the “Royal Military School in Paris”5 where military training started. An Army officer at the age of 16, Napoleon graduated and supported his family on military pay due to his father’s death.7 This fortuitous timing, as the monarchial military officers fled their post because they did not support the new revolutionist government (wk8), allowed Napoleon to step into a higher officer’s position through his talent, not his wealth, as the revolutionist overthrew the monarchy.8 Wartime allowed for the rapid advancement of talented young officers like Napoleon, who became a brigadier general in 1793, commanding forces in Paris in 1795. 9 As a “revolutionary general”,10 his reputation and popularity grew with each successive victory as he continually overcame obstacles that changed his strict personal Corsican values enlarging upon his personal ambitions instead of concentrating on the good of the French citizenry.11 Napoleon saw the opportunity for a new leader approaching especially as the civil war escalated dramatically.12 Again, fortuitous timing put Napoleon in the “right place at the right time”.13 He advanced to brigadier general at age 24 by participating in the Battle of Toulon, and gained important contacts for future use.14 Napoleon’s career continued to have its vicissitudes until his appointment in March 1796, at age 26, to “General and Supreme Commander of the French Army in Italy”.15 Over the next few years, Napoleon exalted himself through his military career, expanding contacts, and personal elitism.16 During these extraordinary years, we cannot overlook Napoleon’s emotional entanglement when marriage to Josephine went against his family wishes and subsequent knowledge of her romantic interludes with other notables.17 This triggered an insatiable need that he filled with “glory and fame”,18 but even more important during this time, was the vision for his future not restricted by superior officers or those in authority.19 After all, Napoleon gave orders to more than 50,000 men under his control affirming an ability to manipulate them for his own use.20 Napoleon used this to his advantage after the Egyptian campaign when the head of the government (the Directory) was in complete turmoil leaving an expedient need for a military leader.21 Napoleon did not overlook the opportune moment insuring his appointment as “commander” of Paris that guaranteed both his political and military career at the very heart of France.22 Napoleon stepped from consul, overthrowing the Directory by force, and renowned himself as Emperor by “self-coronation” not by the vote of the people (one of the main reasons for the revolution).23 This marked an end to the Revolution shifting the power to Napoleon who appointed officials to make certain their loyalty, subsequently insuring that the regime’s power were his to control.24 Napoleon, on December 1799, delivered to the people the “Constitution of the Year VIII”25 proclaiming that the Revolution was over and that he had instituted reforms that involved the rights of the people including their property, equal opportunity, and independence.26 At first, it appeared as if Napoleon was fulfilling those promises as the tentacles of his government evolved with “rigorous centralization”,27 unfortunately, it was means to concentrate power into his own hands and give him the needed taxes and soldiers for his war endeavors making changes to governmental policies. Some of the people did not accept the government so Napoleon created a “ministry of general police” instilled for surveillance purposes to protect Napoleon by uncovering political plots against him, using informants, and ensuring there was no insurgence.28 As Napoleon’s despotism evolved and governmental policies ensued, domestic reforms were set into motion. Domestic reforms, both good and bad, were the lasting legend that Napoleon left his country. During the Revolution, freedom of speech, press, and civil liberties to elicit the opinions of every citizen of the country was a priority but quickly eliminated when Napoleon took power incorporating a “police state”.29 Suppression involved imprisonment for speaking out against Napoleon including insolent remarks as the people were considered enemies of the state, and for an indefinite period incarcerated without trial.30 This reverted to the previous monarchy’s form of government but effectively stopped production of a multitude of independent newspapers allowing Napoleon to provide propaganda through his government controlled newspapers.31 Napoleon ensured that the people would only receive the information that he wanted them to receive helping to control the new governmental policies instituted and furthering his Enlightened Despotism.32 As the Church was part of the information chain and a tremendous part of the citizenry’s lives, Napoleon needed to ensure that the Pope’s blessing was on his endeavor. The “Concordat of 1801” , a move of immense importance on Napoleons part, accepted the Catholic Church as the church of choice by the majority of the French people while ensuring freedom of religion for all of France including Protestants and Jews.33 Of course, there were a few stipulations; that the Church must never speak out against Napoleons reign and that all the lands confiscated during the Revolution would remain in the hands of the new owners. Concurrent to these demands, the Bishops and lower-clergy were to take an oath of allegiance with Napoleon appointed “archbishoprics and bishoprics”.34 A document affixed to this Concordat was the “Organic Articles” giving France the final approval on any communications and restraining the authority of the Pope while ensuring that bishops served the Napoleonic regime by the government interfering in the training of bishops, as we recall, assigned by Napoleon. 35 So, in essence, Napoleon proclaimed control of the Catholic Church for his personal benefit. Again, Napoleon used his enlightenment of issues at hand turning them to a form of despotism. Napoleon further extended that despotism when arresting the Pope after a confrontation and disagreement and the Pope excommunicating Napoleon. Napoleon still believed the “talent” of men overcame “birth into the notability”, as he was living proof of that concept; therefore, creating superior education for gifted boys through secondary education schools known as “lycees”.36 Napoleon felt that women were inferior, and did not need an education and accordingly could continue to be educated through the church.37 The ready supply of superbly educated talented military officers from these schools, loyal and induced with his philosophy and military strategies, insured Napoleons despotism through the “Grand Army”.39 Napoleon had the ability to draw people to him and motivate them to accomplish vast achievements, often referred to as his “cult of personality”.40 This irresistible power emitted intrepid allegiance from his army allowing Napoleon to conquer most of Europe which evolved his dynasty from an “empire” to a “grand empire”.41 In all of this, the ability to entrust authority to others was a major obstacle.42 Instead, a conquered country was allowed to keep the present rulers with a relative of Napoleons acting as the authoritative figure in lieu of establishing a republic.43 . Although Napoleons foreign policies were inadequate, he did instill in France a “Civil Code”, known as “Code Napoleon”, which instituted laws of uniformity and equality.44 The “Civil Code”, the most lasting of all Napoleons accomplishments, resulted in the most all-inclusive set of laws that France had ever known incorporating Napoleons own fixation on justice and equality by bringing about organization and authority to the country.45 The Code brought the diverse legal codes under one supported by Enlightenment beliefs.46 The code became official in 1804, ending feudalism once and for all, and establishing the rights of individual people. One section dedicated entirely to the equality of individuals, with the other two sections covering property rights and attainment,47 brought the wealthy peasants, who had purchased land during the Revolution confiscated from the church and the bourgeois, into the elite of society recognized as notables.48 Stated in 1801 in the Concordant and readily agreed to by Pope VII, the lands that were taken from the church remained confiscated and the new owners had legal rights to those lands. This reaffirming in the “Civil Code” reasserted those measures that the land sales “at the expense of émigrés” were lost.49 Napoleon did use this to his advantage by deliberately returning some of the unsold land to their previous owners or offering to sell it back to them to gain their loyal support for his regime.50 With these declarations, came abolishment of the feudal system, destroying “privatized” justice. The Enlightenment brought equal justice with impartial judges creating occasion for fairness in trials and matters of dispute.51 The “Civil Code” set back a few important issues to the women of the societies as the rights of women’s legacy and it significantly altered the matter of divorce. As a major setback to the Enlightenment standards, fathers again the right to have their children incarcerated for rebellious conduct. Marriage had to be agreed to by the father and he now could divide is property however desired, in other words, unequally. Probably the worst setback for women was the matter of divorce. Women were able to obtain a divorce if they had an abusive husband or proved infidelity. Code Napoleon brought back the laws under the ancient regime, setting a double standard, as men could obtain a divorce for adultery, but women could not except in rare cases when the man had committed the act in their own home. Napoleon viewed women as baby making machines placed in positions subordinate to men. As we have discussed before, this played a major factor in his education policies.52 All of these new policies needed financing as France was in a depressed state economically which prompted Napoleon to change fiscal policies. In 1975, famine resulted from super-inflated prices, required “The Directory’s” urgent attention. The subsequent “territorial mandates” to replace the paper money failed causing the “bankruptcy of the two thirds”. 53 Finally, they turned back to the “metal money policy” in 1797 that only deepened the depression of 1797-1799. Napoleon entered, instituting simple but effective policies to this backdrop.54 Napoleons system was reliant on the men that he entrusted with the duties of fiscal reform that included Gaudin, Barbe-Marbois, and Mollien who followed each other in sequential order.55 Communication between departments improved (the central revenue office and the central expenditure office) allowing reforms to occur in public accounting, tax collection, and consolidation of all aspects of the monetary business of the regime.56 Gaudin reformed the tax collection ensuring the taxation on products was fair and equitable. He also ensured collected taxes on “custom duties and the various stamp and registration charges”,57 that alone created a third of the public’s major income to the government. Barbe-Marbois demanded reports from ministers in details on taxes to ensure the movement and disbursement of municipal funds. When Mollien took over, he improved the complete system of accounting by creating “a new central accounts office”.58 With Napoleons Whole Empire depending on the monetary gains, he was at the main controls to ensure success that included the “Bank of France”.59 Napoleons fiscal policies were an achievement if compared to the previous regimes. He created a stable currency, paid debts, and honored pensions and salaries to ensure that the policies that were instituted could be funded.60 As France stayed in a perpetual state of war, Napoleon used the “Spoil System” to extract heavy amounts of money to support his war endeavors by cruel treatment of his defeated enemies.61 The “Spoil System” involved demanding from conquered countries up to half of their resources including land, money, and revenues to fund his “politics of grandeur”.62 The system allowed him to bestow land grants and rewards on his top military commanders making them part of “the notables”.63 Through their talent, not heredity, these commanders reaped the benefits of their careers. The “Notables and Imperial Nobility” insured Napoleon of loyalty through monetary gains for their endeavors.64 Napoleon Bonaparte, an Enlightened Despot, used his enlightened concepts to improve conditions in major ways that left his mark on the French society even today. He portrayed his self- image through art that surrounded him daily: “the capital N surrounded by laurel leafs used on his cape, throne, on the Imperial Palace and on public buildings”.65 Sculptors and artists did not work autonomously, but for Napoleon creating “official coinage, engraving, painting, interior decoration, architecture, sculptures and the like”66 leaving behind a legacy of art. Napoleon through his egotistical power created an Imperial regime through military splendor and public magnificence with a charismatic personality evoking all who met him to follow whether they were for or against the emperor. Napoleon used propaganda and military force to create his dynasty67 while enlightening France with new civil laws, The Civil Code, of equality, higher education possibilities for all that had talent, sound fiscal policies, the legacy of art, and freedom of religious beliefs. These were instituted with a controlling despot who also demeaned women, conquered lands cruelly with no thought for the loss of life, demanded complete control of literature and means of communication, and commanded complete obedience from his cabinet and consuls. Napoleon came from a lowly Corsican background to fulfill his destiny through talent while furthering his own self-interest and destiny. References (1) Ellis, Geoffrey. Napoleon, Profiles in Power. London: Pearson Education Limited, 1997 Pg.33 (2) Ellis, Geoffrey. Napoleon, Profiles in Power. London: Pearson Education Limited, 1997. Pgs 189-195 (3) Ellis, Geoffrey. Napoleon, Profiles in Power. London: Pearson Education Limited, 1997. Pgs 9-10 (4) Ellis, Geoffrey. Napoleon, Profiles in Power. London: Pearson Education Limited, 1997. Pgs 12 (5) Ellis, Geoffrey. Napoleon, Profiles in Power. London: Pearson Education Limited, 1997. Pgs 16 (6) Ellis, Geoffrey. Napoleon, Profiles in Power. London: Pearson Education Limited, 1997. Pgs 16 (7) Ellis, Geoffrey. Napoleon, Profiles in Power. London: Pearson Education Limited, 1997. Pgs 17,18 (8) Ellis, Geoffrey. Napoleon, Profiles in Power. London: Pearson Education Limited, 1997. Pgs 18 (9) Smith, Dr. Hal, Lecture Notes, 2010. Wk 8 (10) Smith, Dr. Hal, Lecture Notes, 2010. Wk 8 (11) Ellis, Geoffrey. Napoleon, Profiles in Power. London: Pearson Education Limited, 1997. Pgs 19-21 (12) Ellis, Geoffrey. Napoleon, Profiles in Power. London: Pearson Education Limited, 1997. Pgs 21 (13) Ellis, Geoffrey. Napoleon, Profiles in Power. London: Pearson Education Limited, 1997. Pgs 21 (14) Ellis, Geoffrey. Napoleon, Profiles in Power. London: Pearson Education Limited, 1997. Pgs 21 (15) Ellis, Geoffrey. Napoleon, Profiles in Power. London: Pearson Education Limited, 1997. Pgs 22-23 (16) Ellis, Geoffrey. Napoleon, Profiles in Power. London: Pearson Education Limited, 1997. Pgs 23 (17) Ellis, Geoffrey. Napoleon, Profiles in Power. London: Pearson Education Limited, 1997. Pgs 26 (18) Ellis, Geoffrey. Napoleon, Profiles in Power. London: Pearson Education Limited, 1997. Pgs 31 (19) Ellis, Geoffrey. Napoleon, Profiles in Power. London: Pearson Education Limited, 1997. Pgs 27 (20) Ellis, Geoffrey. Napoleon, Profiles in Power. London: Pearson Education Limited, 1997. Pgs 27 (21) Ellis, Geoffrey. Napoleon, Profiles in Power. London: Pearson Education Limited, 1997. Pgs 32 (22) Ellis, Geoffrey. Napoleon, Profiles in Power. London: Pearson Education Limited, 1997. Pgs 33 (23) Smith, Dr. Hal, Lecture Notes, 2010. Wk 9 (24) Smith, Dr. Hal, Lecture Notes, 2010. Wk 9 (25) Ellis, Geoffrey. Napoleon, Profiles in Power. London: Pearson Education Limited, 1997. Pgs 37 (26) Ellis, Geoffrey. Napoleon, Profiles in Power. London: Pearson Education Limited, 1997 Pg.37 (27) Ellis, Geoffrey. Napoleon, Profiles in Power. London: Pearson Education Limited, 1997 Pg.49 (28) Ellis, Geoffrey. Napoleon, Profiles in Power. London: Pearson Education Limited, 1997 Pg.48 (29) Smith, Dr. Hal, Lecture Notes, 2010. Wk 9 (30) Smith, Dr. Hal, Lecture Notes, 2010. Wk 9 (31) Smith, Dr. Hal, Lecture Notes, 2010. Wk 9 (32) Smith, Dr. Hal, Lecture Notes, 2010. Wk 9 (33) Smith, Dr. Hal, Lecture Notes, 2010. Wk 9; Ellis, Geoffrey. Napoleon, Profiles in Power. London: Pearson Education Limited, 1997. Pgs 62 (34) Smith, Dr. Hal, Lecture Notes, 2010. Wk 9; Ellis, Geoffrey. Napoleon, Profiles in Power. London: Pearson Education Limited, 1997. Pgs 63 (35) Smith, Dr. Hal, Lecture Notes, 2010. Wk 9; Ellis, Geoffrey. Napoleon, Profiles in Power. London: Pearson Education Limited, 1997. Pgs 63-64 (36) Smith, Dr. Hal, Lecture Notes, 2010. Wk 10 (37) Smith, Dr. Hal, Lecture Notes, 2010. Wk 10 (38) Ellis, Geoffrey. Napoleon, Profiles in Power. London: Pearson Education Limited, 1997 Pg.87 (39) Ellis, Geoffrey. Napoleon, Profiles in Power. London: Pearson Education Limited, 1997 Pg.87 (40) Ellis, Geoffrey. Napoleon, Profiles in Power. London: Pearson Education Limited, 1997 Pg.88 (41) Ellis, Geoffrey. Napoleon, Profiles in Power. London: Pearson Education Limited, 1997 Pg.81 (42) Ellis, Geoffrey. Napoleon, Profiles in Power. London: Pearson Education Limited, 1997 Pg.89 (43) Smith, Dr. Hal, Lecture Notes, 2010. Wk 10 (44) Ellis, Geoffrey. Napoleon, Profiles in Power. London: Pearson Education Limited, 1997 Pg.76 (45) Ellis, Geoffrey. Napoleon, Profiles in Power. London: Pearson Education Limited, 1997 Pg.76 (46) Smith, Dr. Hal, Lecture Notes, 2010. Wk 10 (47) Ellis, Geoffrey. Napoleon, Profiles in Power. London: Pearson Education Limited, 1997 Pg.77 (48) Ellis, Geoffrey. Napoleon, Profiles in Power. London: Pearson Education Limited, 1997 Pg.128 (49) Ellis, Geoffrey. Napoleon, Profiles in Power. London: Pearson Education Limited, 1997 Pg.128 (50) Ellis, Geoffrey. Napoleon, Profiles in Power. London: Pearson Education Limited, 1997 Pg.128 (51) Smith, Dr. Hal, Lecture Notes, 2010. Wk 10 (52) Smith, Dr. Hal, Lecture Notes, 2010. Wk 10 (53) Ellis, Geoffrey. Napoleon, Profiles in Power. London: Pearson Education Limited, 1997 Pg.66-67 (54) Ellis, Geoffrey. Napoleon, Profiles in Power. London: Pearson Education Limited, 1997 Pg.67 (55) Ellis, Geoffrey. Napoleon, Profiles in Power. London: Pearson Education Limited, 1997 Pg.68 (56) Ellis, Geoffrey. Napoleon, Profiles in Power. London: Pearson Education Limited, 1997 Pg.67 (57) Ellis, Geoffrey. Napoleon, Profiles in Power. London: Pearson Education Limited, 1997 Pg.68-69 (58) Ellis, Geoffrey. Napoleon, Profiles in Power. London: Pearson Education Limited, 1997 Pg.69-70 (59) Ellis, Geoffrey. Napoleon, Profiles in Power. London: Pearson Education Limited, 1997 Pg.69-70 (60) Ellis, Geoffrey. Napoleon, Profiles in Power. London: Pearson Education Limited, 1997 Pg.72 (61) Ellis, Geoffrey. Napoleon, Profiles in Power. London: Pearson Education Limited, 1997 Pg.73 (62) Ellis, Geoffrey. Napoleon, Profiles in Power. 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