Motivation_and_Learners

Understanding Learners in FE: Motivation Date: 6th December 2010 Table of Contents Contents Table of Contents 2 Part 1 3 What is Motivation' 3 The Behaviorist Theories 3 The Cognitive Theories 5 The Humanist Theories 7 References: 9 Part 1 What is Motivation' Motivation is the force that drives a person to achieve a goal. Wordnetweb.princeton.edu defines motivation as “The psychological feature that arouses an organism to action towards a desired goal; the reason for the action; that which gives purpose and direction to behavior”. Motivation can be divided into Intrinsic and Extrinsic motivation. Basic motivation can be represented thus: Wants/Needs Behavior Satisfaction Wants/Needs Behavior Satisfaction Diagram 1 - (http://www.analytictech.com/mb021/motivation.htm) Deci and Ryan (2000) described intrinsic motivation as the “doing of an activity for its inherent satisfactions rather than for some separable consequence”. The activity itself provides satisfaction. Extrinsic motivation on the other hand, describes motivation that manifests with the promise of a “specific goal that provides satisfaction independent of the activity itself” (Leavitt, Pondy and Boje, 1964). The Behaviorist Theories J. B. Watson founded the psychological school of behaviorism in 1913 based on his studies with animals. He argued that psychology was only concerned with behavior (DeMar, 1989), and that humans could be studied based solely on their actions. Watson (1919), Smith and Guthrie (1921) and Dashiell (1928) provided a theoretical framework for the behaviorist methodology. They proposed that behavior should be evaluated in its own right, free of the relationship with consciousness. Skinner rejected Watson’s emphasis on reflexes and conditioning and argued that the mind (or consciousness) did exist but studying behavior, which is observable, would be of greater value. The behaviorist school of thought argued that positive reinforcers such as reward would cause an individual to alter their behavior (approach motivation); stimuli would lead to a specific response. Negative reinforcers such as punishment, would also lead to a specific behavior – avoidance of the stimuli (avoidance motivation). James (1890) and Freud (1915) made reference to pleasure seeking or pain avoidance being the primary motivators of behavior. Herzberg uses the term “motivation-hygiene” in his 1966 work when studying factors caused satisfaction or dissatisfaction in an employee’s work. He identified satisfiers as motivators and dissatisfiers as hygiene factors. He disagreed with Watson and purported that factors that led to dissatisfaction were external but that factors leading to satisfaction were internal. Con of Satisfiers and Sean (see appendix 1), a student that I currently teach, appears to demonstrate behaviors associated with positive reinforcers. He has not chosen to attend college voluntarily and puts little work into his studies. He does as little as he can to pass a unit as he will lose financially if he does not attend college. It was hard work trying to get Sean to participate in class activities until he was given an incentive. Brookfield (1995, p93) states that “If we have a grasp of the sources of apathy or anger in students, we can work on developing exercises and activities that are as nonthreatening and connecting as possible.” He would work well (and competently) when he was offered ten minutes of Internet time after he completed a task. This turned out to be a simplistic form of conditioning as when Sean realized the offer was genuine; he began to work harder in class. At the end of the block, Sean was submitting work well done and timely without prompting enabling him to receive his reward. Tom (see appendix 2), on the other hand, does not appear to support this theory. He plans to establish his own business after his computing course using the skills he has learned. This ambition is not necessarily based on achieving a specific qualification, but the internal desire to acquire better skills and make a good living with them. The promise of an HND (Higher National Diploma) is not his motivating factor. His motivation is internal (or intrinsic) as he chose his course because of his deep interest in it. Archie (see Appendix 3) also seems to stand out against this theory as he attends class to learn a new skill and is also not seeking external reward. He is not attending to gain a qualification but purely for the enjoyment of the subject. He is intrinsically motivated and he has set himself a personal goal that he is working towards. I feel Archie’s case argues against the theory. Watson and Skinner argued that the promise/threat of a reward/punishment would motivate a learner into a particular behavior but Archie works hard for his own internal desire and not for an external reward. I surmise that conditioning does not solely or fully explain the motivation and behaviors that a learner exhibits; it appears that there does not need to be an external stimulus to provoke a response. Internal (intrinsic) motivation would appear to play a major part in learner motivation. The Cognitive Theories The cognitive theories are attributed to the Gestalt theories of Wertheimer, Koffka and Kohler (Atherton, 2010); the theory was further advanced by Piaget in his book Genetic Epistemology (1971) and put forward the theory that mental processes were involved in the development of knowledge. Cognitives argue that thinking is central to the learning process (Wallace, 2005). Cognitive theorists explicitly acknowledge the existence of internal motivators such as belief and desire. Cognitive Evaluation Theory (also known as The Self-Determination Theory) suggests that there are two motivation systems: Intrinsic and extrinsic, and that allocating extrinsic rewards for previously intrinsically motivated behavior will decrease the overall level of motivation. Deci and Ryan (1995) carried out studies that focused on the degree to which self-motivation and self-determination determined behavior. They described the internalization of extrinsic motive as a personally endorsed value and studied the behavior resulting from this. They identified three psychological needs – competence, relatedness and autonomy – that are essential for mental health and well-being. Autonomy Competence Relatedness Self Determination Theory Autonomy Competence Relatedness Self Determination Theory Diagram 2 - (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-determination_theory#cite_ref-13) Deci and Ryan (1995) concluded that if a person was offered an external reward for achieving something they had already been intrinsically motivated to do, the level of intrinsic motivation decreases. I cannot see this in either of the two intrinsically motivated learners I teach. Archie (appendix 3) has good intrinsic motivation but he now knows that if he is successful in his chosen course of study, he will receive a qualification from the SQA (Scottish Qualifications Authority). He initially disregarded the promise of an external reward and continued on the course with great enthusiasm. He has now come to view the certificate he will receive as an added bonus, but there was no evidence of his motivation waning due to an extrinsic reward being offered. Likewise, Tom (appendix 2) also falls into this category. He is not working well in his course purely to gain an HND but for the intrinsic value the new skills and knowledge have for him. I therefore conclude that extrinsic motivational factors are not having a detrimental effect on their original motivation to embark on study in Further/Higher Education. Sean, (appendix 1) is not motivated at all by the promise of a qualification. Gaining an NC will be the by-product of achieving his short-term goal of financial stability (for this year at least). His extrinsic reward is the promise of his bursary payments. Vroom (1964) put forward the Expectancy Theory to account for motivation in an organization. He suggested that individuals will be motivated if they believe that: * The reward they are receiving is adequate to offset the amount of work being done * Predicted organizational rewards are valued by the employee in question The theory emphasizes self-interest the connections with expected behaviors, rewards and organizational goals. The assumption is made that behavior results from a conscious choice to maximize pleasure and minimize pain. This puts greater emphasis on the individual’s internal beliefs. Archie fits this theory as he increases effort to achieve better performance and this will lead to his reward of new skills and knowledge. The reward and the meeting of this personal goal are valuable to Archie. Steven (appendix 4) puts in great effort to increase his performance in class. He is battling negative stereotyping due to his disability and by showing he can perform well, he is proving to himself (and others) that is capable of being more than he is labeled. Armitage et al (2003, p.84) states that ““Many mature students lack confidence in their ability to learn, have low expectations of themselves or have memories of bad educational experiences.” Steven’s previous educational experiences have been negative but he has come to believe that his increased performance will gain him the reward of self confidence. Again, this case seems to disprove the argument that external reward will lessen the motivation of an already intrinsically motivated learner. To conclude this section, I see some value in the cognitive theories but it does not fully explain the motivations that drive individuals to attend college. When looked at closely, it is apparent that every student has individual motivations that, although they exhibit similar behaviors, are driven by different reasons. The Humanist Theories This is arguably the most well known school of thought that proposes that an individual will be driven to achieve their maximum potential and will battle to overcome deficiencies/obstacles in their way. Maslow (1970) called this theory the Hierarchy of Needs. He illustrated in pyramidal form: Warmth, shelter, hunger, sleep Security of self, employment, resources, family etc. Friendship, family, intimacy Self esteem, confidence, respect Self-Actualization Psychological Needs Safety Needs Social Needs Esteem Needs Warmth, shelter, hunger, sleep Security of self, employment, resources, family etc. Friendship, family, intimacy Self esteem, confidence, respect Self-Actualization Psychological Needs Safety Needs Social Needs Esteem Needs Diagram 3. - Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Maslow (1970) argued that humans have specific needs to meet and unless they are met, it would not be possible to strive for higher level needs. Salacik and Pfeffer (1977) produced studies that questioned the acceptance of Maslow’s hierarchy. They concluded their study by saying: “While need-satisfaction models posit rationality and the possibility of individual action, they do not give humans credit for much adaptability in the pursuit of satisfaction”. Sean is working to satisfy needs on the second level – safety. He attends college primarily for the funding he will receive. He has not thought far enough into the future to focus on a need that will aid him in the long term. Tom’s motivation is for a longer term goal so he is working on needs that are satisfied initially through funding, but he anticipates that the skills and knowledge he achieves will help to satisfy his safety needs in the longer term. Using a similar hierarchy, Clayton Aldefer (1972) was critical of Maslow’s theory as applied to an organization and developed his own theory based on three groups of core needs – Existence, Relatedness and Growth (ERG). He argued that more than one need may be in effect at one time and that if a higher level need cannot be satisfied, then the impetus to fulfill a lower-level need increases. Aldefer’s theory allows for the simultaneous pursuit of different levels of needs. It also allows the order of needs to vary for different people. He introduced the frustration-regression principle that acknowledges that individuals will regress to pursue a lower level need when the higher level ones cannot be fulfilled. As lecturers, we must acknowledge that our learners may possibly have multiple needs that they are striving to fulfill simultaneously. Archie is striving to meet needs on two levels. He is aiming to achieve needs on the social level; better skills for communicating with his family, but he is also working to satisfy a deficiency on the esteem needs level. So Maslow’s hierarchy does not entirely fit his case. Aldefer’s modified hierarchy may be a better explanation for Archie’s motivation. Steven’s primary motivator is to prove to himself and others that he is capable of learning a new skill. He has needs on the safety level; unemployment and finance, but he also has great need on the fourth level; his self esteem and confidence. Maslow’s rigid hierarchy does not fit him. The ERG theory has greater relevance to Steven. By examining four different case studies, I have come to the conclusion that one theory does not fit all. There are elements of each that appear to fit with the motivations and behaviors of the learners. References: Atherton, J.S., 2010. Learning and Teaching: Experiential Learning. [On-line] UK: Available: http://www.learningandteaching.info/learning/experience.htm Accessed: 15 October 2010 Atherton, J.S., 2010. 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