Main_Factors_That_Influenced_the_Political_Structure_of_the_Middle_East

Geopolitical Factor! We ask ourselves: what is the Middle East' • Why do we call it the Middle East' • In the 19th century, people did not think of the current Middle East as the “Middle East”. • Ethnocentric Europeans viewed the rest of the world according to its distance to Europe—which they perceived as the centre of the world. • The current Middle East used to be referred to as the ‘Near East’. • In the 19th and early 20th centuries, the Near East was referred to as the ‘Eastern Question’. • The Near East referred to Asia Minor (Turkey), the Levant (Palestine, Lebanon, Syria and Jordan), Mesopotamia (modern Iraq), and even included all of the Balkan states (Greece, Bulgaria, Romania, Bosnia and Herzegovina), which were part of the Ottoman Empire, and parts of North Africa. • The Balkans represented an important aspect of European diplomacy; especially important to the Europeans was their desire to try to get the Ottomans out of the Balkans. • Today the Middle East and Near East are synonymous. • During the Second World War, Great Britain moved its headquarters from India to Cairo and they became known as the Middle East headquarters. Suddenly people stopped calling India the Middle East and started calling the Near East the Middle East. • There are different views as to what constitutes the Middle East. • The Minimalists consider the Middle East to be formed of the following states: o Turkey o The Levant states (Israel, Syria, Lebanon, Jordan) o Egypt o The Arabian peninsula (Saudi-Arabia, Yemen, Oman, United-Arab-Emirates, Qatar, Bahrain, Kuwait) o Iraq o Iran • So the Middle East goes from Egypt to Iran (West to East) and from Turkey to Yemen (North to South). • Some minimalists include Libya, but that is debatable. • The Maximalists go from Morocco, including the Maghreb states (Algeria, Tunisia and Morocco) to Iran. • Some even include Pakistan and the Sudan. • Countries east of Libya are referred to as the Mashreq (‘East’ in Arabic) and countries west of Libya are called the Maghreb (‘West’ in Arabic). • For the purposes of this course, we will adopt the minimalist view. • It important to understand the geography of the Middle East and to study the map. • Now we will briefly look at the past 2000 years of Middle Eastern history. • The beginning of civilization as we know it in the West began on the banks of the Nile in Egypt and the Euphrates and the Tigris in Mesopotamia. • In ancient times, people had a hard time traveling and they therefore used these waterways to navigate. • Europe at the time was run by barbarian tribes. There were, however, great civilizations in India and China. • In this course, we are concerned with the Middle Eastern civilization from which European civilization developed. Our first interest pertains to a conflict between Egypt and Babylonia, each trying to control the Levant. • Little by little, a new player, Persia, East of Babylonia, emerged. • Persia openly clashed with Egypt, and the conflict grew. • A few years later, Alexander the Great appeared out of Macedonia as the Greek conqueror • The conflict was now between Persia and Greece. Alexander was a great conqueror; he even conquered India before dying in his thirties. • Rome, which was a city-state, was the next newcomer to conquer all of the Mediterranean and face the Persians. • The Romans were in Egypt, in all of North Africa, Spain, Gaul (future France), Italy, Greece, Asia Minor, Palestine, Lebanon, Syria, and elsewhere. • Rome eventually collapsed. • It fell in 410 AD and in 455 AD and again in 476 AD. Each time barbarians from the north sacked the city. • Romans under Emperor Constantine had built Constantinople on the straits of the Dardanelles and Bosporus. • The city of Constantinople became the co-capital of the Roman Empire and it was in the near East. When Rome fell, Constantinople emerged as the capital of the eastern Roman Empire, also known as the Byzantine Empire. • At that time, Europe was taken over by barbarian tribes and Roman culture expressed itself in the Near East through the Byzantine Empire. • This is one explanation for the similarity between European and Middle Eastern cultures. • The Romans faced the Persians on the border between the Byzantine Empire and Persia. • The focus was now on the Near East, not Western Europe. There were continuous battles through the fourth, fifth and sixth centuries AD. The Arab Conquest • However, in the seventh century, the Arabs—formerly unknown— came out of the Arabian Peninsula, recently converted to Islam. • The Arab Prophet Mohammed had united all of the different Arab tribes into one political entity. • When he died in 632 AD, the Arab successors of Prophet Mohammed—the Caliphs—began an expansion after 632 AD and attacked both the Persian and the Byzantine Empire. • The Arabs were able to bring down the Persian Empire and expand eastward while converting people to Islam. • On the western front, the Arabs expelled the Byzantines from Palestine, Syria, Egypt, North Africa, and even drove them out of Spain in only 100 years. • The Arab Empire spanned from Spain to India. However, the Arabs were not able to bring down the Byzantine Empire; they were stopped by the Toros Mountains which separated Syria form Anatolia. • The Byzantines continued to rule Anatolia until the 15th century. • In 1453, the Turks (a group from central Asia) conquered Constantinople. What the Arabs did was more important than all of the other conquests. The reason for this is because: 1) The Arabs ‘Arabized’ the region: Arabic became the language from Mesopotamia to Morocco. 2) The Arabs converted most of the inhabitants to Islam and gave the area their religion (which no other conqueror had done). • The Arabs did not impose Islam on the “people of the book”: Jews and Christians. •They were allowed to keep their faith, but were obliged to pay a special tax to maintain their beliefs. At the time this was rather progressive, considering the fact that during the same period in Europe all subjects had to either follow their rulers’ religion or immigrate. • On the other hand, Zoroastrian Persians were forced to convert to Islam, but Jews and Christians were not, and this was progressive at the time. • The people of most of that region are mainly Muslim and people in 22 states still use the Arabic language. • There are still Christians in the region and there were many Jews before 1948 (the year of the creation of Israel). • The Arab conquest left a lasting legacy on that part of the world. • At one point, the Arabs had even reached France before being stopped by Charles Martel in the battle of Poitiers in 732 AD. • Spain and Portugal were also under Muslim rule from the 7th until the 15th century. The Arab Empire was divided into three dynasties: 1) Orthodox/Rashidun/Rightly Guided Caliphs: the first 4 caliphs (632 to 661 AD). Most of the conquests took place during their rule. They ruled from Mecca and Medina. 2) Ummayyads (661 until 750 AD), at the end of the Arab expansion. They transformed the republican type of political organization established by the orthodox caliphs into a monarchical system after 661 AD. Damascus was the capital of their empire. 3) Abbasides overthrew the Ummayyads and ruled from 750 until 1258 AD. During this period, especially during the 8th and 9th centuries, the Arabs were the most advanced people—it was their golden age. For instance, they invented the zero and were advanced in mathematics, astrology and medicine. Baghdad was the capital of their empire. • Every empire eventually collapses, and the Arabs were swept away by the Mongols, who destroyed Baghdad. The fall of Baghdad in 1258 AD meant the end of the Arab Empire. • Nevertheless, the Arabs had already managed to spread their language and their faith. • From 1258 until 1299 there was chaos and all kinds of conflict in the Middle East. Conflict in the Middle East • In 1299, the Ottoman Turks succeeded where others had previously failed. • By the 1500s, the Turks dominated the area and built an empire even greater than the Arab Empire. • The Turks controlled all of the Balkans, the Levant, Egypt and all of North Africa, except Morocco. • There was still an Arab entity in Spain until 1492 when the last Arab battalion left Grenada. • What we had was a powerful Turkish state from 1299 until 1918. Post 1918 After 1918, these lands were divided mainly between France and Great Britain into mandates, protectorates and vassal states. • As early as the 1820s, the British had started establishing protectorates in places like Kuwait, Bahrain, Qatar, the Trucial States (future United Arab Emirates) and Oman. Little by little, the British were establishing colonial relationships. • The most important British acquisition was Aden, the entrance point of the Red Sea, taken over by the British in 1839. • The British moved into Aden because they feared that Napoleon, who had move into Egypt, could block their access to India. • The French took over Algeria in 1830, which they considered to be part of France. • France acquired Tunisia in 1881 and Morocco in 1912. These are referred to as the three Maghreb states. • Libya was taken over by Italy in 1911. • Egypt was taken over by Great Britain in 1882. • Great Britain, France and to a limited extent Italy were positioning themselves in Ottoman territory. Only the Levant, Iraq and interior parts of the Arabian Peninsula, such as Mecca, Medina and Jeddah were under Ottoman rule. Ottoman rule was little by little cut off. • Most of the Balkan states became independent by 1878. • Greece became independent in 1830, and Romania and Serbia Montenegro became independent in 1878. • In 1878, Bosnia and Herzegovina was put under Austrian rule. Modern Period – States Period • After the fall of the Ottoman Empire, we enter into the modern period. • The era of the nation-state was created by the British and the French. • There were no international borders in the Arab and Ottoman periods. • This was the emergence of a new Middle East after 1918. • There were, as of 1918, individual states for the first time in the history of the Middle East. For instance, there was always an Egypt, but there were never states such as Syria, Lebanon, Iraq, or Palestine. Even the Arabian Peninsula became divided. Throughout most of history, except for part of the Ottoman period (period of isolation, 4 centuries), the Middle East was always at the centre of things. Geopolitical and Strategic Factors * The Middle East is a land bridge between three continents (between Asia and Africa, and between Asia and Europe). Any strategist will recognize the importance of this. * o The Middle East is a land bridge between three continents (between Asia and Africa, and between Asia and Europe). Any strategist will recognize the importance of this. * o Napoleon seized Alexandria and moved to Cairo, telling the people that he had come to liberate them from their oppressors—the Mamluks—who were very oppressive rulers. * o They were former slaves and were loyal to the government in Constantinople. * o After defeating the Mamluks, Napoleon moved into Palestine, occupying Gaza and Jaffa and moving toward Acre, which he besieged and eventually started shelling. o The British came to the aid of the Ottomans and started shelling the French. o The British also began distributing papers claiming that there was trouble in France, with the hope that this would lead Napoleon to end his adventure. o Indeed, he did, leaving his men to return to France, and he took over the government of France after 1799. o Now what would he do with his 38,000 men' o By 1801, the French signed an agreement with the British and Ottomans and the 38,000 men left Egypt. This adventure had an effect on Egypt and the entire Middle East: it was the first time that there was a shock between the European civilization and the more traditional Ottoman Islamic civilization. o Napoleon had also brought with him scholars, engineers and historians to produce an encyclopedia on Egypt. o The engineers suggested building a canal from the Mediterranean to the Red Sea, shortening the trip from Europe to Asia (India and China). o The French engineers said they knew how to create such a canal. o The Egyptian ruler was to grant a French company concession to build that canal. * By 1869, the Suez Canal was open. o It shortened the trip from Europe to India and China. o Before the creation of the canal, Europeans used to go around the Cape of Good Hope to reach these areas. o Now, a 15-day trip was shortened to a 5-day trip and the canal became of great strategic importance. o Not only was the Suez Canal the bridge between continents, it was now an international waterway that transformed the entire Middle East into a centre again. o The canal gave new importance to Egypt in the Middle East after it had been ignored for 400 years. oThe opening of the Suez Canal made the Middle East a basic link between Europe and Asia. o The British realized at this point the importance of the Mediterranean and the Red Sea and they possessed a vision for the entire area. o In 1773, the British had acquired the Strait of Gibraltar, which is the entrance from the Atlantic into to the Mediterranean. o In 1815, the British had also acquired Malta, an island between Italy and Libya. o The British also acquired Aden in 1839. * The British controlled all of the territory from the entrance of the Mediterranean to the entrance of the Red Sea. • The control of the seas became a British objective. • Great Britain controlled all of the Mediterranean including Malta and Cyprus. • By 1918, Britain had added Palestine, Transjordan, and what was to be known as Iraq to its areas of control. Strategic Straits of the Bosphorus and Dardanelles – Russian Stategy • The Straits of the Dardanelles and the Bosphorus are very important, especially for the Russians, because if they could not navigate through them, the Black Sea would simply be a giant lake. • Both straits are in Turkish territory. German Startegy • The Germans, like Napoleon, thought that if they controlled the Suez Canal, they would drastically weaken the British Empire by breaking its link to India. El Alamein Battle • In 1942, the Battle of El Alamein took place in Egypt and symbolized a turning point in World War II. • It was as significant as the battle of Leningrad. The Cold War • During the Cold War, the United States and Soviet Union fought over the Middle East. They both felt that it was a vital region for them. The Russians were interested in the Bosphorus and Dardanelles. Stalin even suggested co-sovereignty over the straits between Turkey and the Soviet Union (which Turkey refused). • The Turks and Greeks were being supported by Great Britain in their opposition to the Soviet Union. • After the British, the United States, under the leadership of President Truman, became increasingly involved in the Middle East and gave a great deal of support to Turkey and Greece in order to stop the communist expansion. Important of Turkey to the West • Turkey fought in Korea and became a member of NATO. • Turkey became very important to the West due to its location on the border of the Soviet Union. Communist Threat • After Truman, Eisenhower came into office in 1953 and his secretary of state was John Foster Dulles, a staunch anti-communist. • The American administration tried to recruit other Middle Eastern nations and link them to NATO in order to oppose communism. • These efforts eventually failed, but later resulted in the Baghdad Pact. The Eisenhower Doctrine • The Eisenhower Doctrine promised and delivered military and economic help to nations in the Middle East that stood up against communism. • Lebanon was the first nation to be visited by the Americans. Turkey, Saudi Arabia, Iraq, Iran, Libya, Israel, and even Ethiopia approved of the Eisenhower Doctrine. • However, there were states that opposed it. Egypt, Syria and Yemen refused to receive the American Ambassador. Oil • The world depends on oil. The economies of modern states depend on oil. Everything is linked to oil nowadays. • In the early 1970s, the price of a barrel of oil was $2. • In the 1970s, the price was propelled. At one point it was doubled to $4. • Recently, the price of a barrel went up to $74. The 1973 Oil Embargo + Iranina Revolution • Some Arab states decided to raise the price of oil through OPEC and set an embargo on the United States, South Africa, Portugal and Holland. • In 1973 and 1979, the cost of a barrel of oil jumped to $40 (in other words, the cost was multiplied by 10). •This caused an economic recession in the West that might still have an impact on our modern economies. • There was a general inflation in most of the world following these events. • In the early 1990s, the price of a barrel went down to $13 in the early 1990s before the Kuwait War. • The United States in the 1970s was most dependent on oil from the Middle East. • Today, countries from Europe as well as China and Japan depend on oil from the Middle East more than the United States does. • The United States is producing less and less of its oil energy. In 1990, it produced 57% of its energy, but in 2020, it is projected that it will produce only 39%. • This increases the importance of oil and the interest in keeping the oil market secure. • Some even suggest that this is why the United States invaded Iraq in 2003. • The majority of oil production is in the Middle East. The Middle East produces the most oil and this leads to a lot of interest in the area. The Cradle of Civilization The Middle East is where Western civilization began. • It is also the centre of the three monotheistic religions. • There are many sacred centres, such as Jerusalem, which is holy to all three monotheistic religions. • Mecca and Medina are considered to be holy places by all Muslims. • Shiite Muslims have many other holy sites, such as Qom, Najaf and Karbala. • For Christians, Nazareth and Bethlehem are holy sites. • The Jews consider Hebron to be holy. Religion • Most people do not understand the importance of holy sites. • Religious sensitivity must be taken into consideration. In Iraq, for example, the Shiites have been reacting to Sunni domination for more than 400 years ago. • In both the Iraqi and Palestinian elections, religious parties won. • People in the West are linked to these regions and hear about sites such as Jerusalem at churches and synagogues. Even Muslims who live in the West hear about holy places in the Middle East on a weekly basis. • For that reason, Westerners feel more connected to the Middle East than to other regions such as the Far East, for instance. People of the Middle East • Peoples of the Middle East include Arabs, Persians, Turks, Kurds, Berbers, Armenians, Copts, and Jews among others. • All of these people played an important role in Middle Eastern history. Pan-Arabism / Pan-Islam • In the 20th century, the Arab-speaking people dreamed of recreating the Arab Empire and of linking all states from Morocco to Iraq. • They failed, however, and Pan-Arabism eventually declined. • Egypt’s President, Gamal Abdel Nasser, symbolized Pan-Arabism to the Arab masses. • Pan-Islam started appearing just as Pan-Arabism was fading away. • Pan-Islam is still growing today. Iran • Iran has a culture of its own and a rich history. • Iran has a great legacy and the country appears to be playing an increasingly important role in the Middle East because of its nuclear aspirations. • The majority of Iranians are Persians, but there are other ethnic groups such as Arabs, Azeris and Baluchis. Turkey • The Turks are now limited to Asia Minor. • At one point in history, however, they had the Ottoman Empire, which dominated the region. • Many central Asian states are also of Turkish ethnic background. The Kurds • Kurds have had a very difficult history. • In 1920, the Western powers had promised in the Treaty of Sèvre to recreate parts of Kurdistan. However, this did not take place, and in 1923 the Treaty of Lausanne replaced the Treaty of Sèvre. • Today there are approximately 14 million Kurds in Turkey, 6 million in Iran, 4 million in Iraq and around 400,000 in Syria. Most Kurds are in these four neighbouring states. • In Iraq, since the Gulf War in 1991, the Kurds have had autonomy. • Kurds are different from Arabs, Persians, and Turks. They are a people of their own. • The current president of Iraq is of Kurdish background. Berbers • Berbers may make up more than 40% of the population of Algeria. • They came from Europe to North Africa. • They are not Arabs, but they live in the three Maghreb states of Morocco, Algeria, and Tunisia. • They speak their own language and look different from the Arabs. • To date, there is a sort of cohabitation between Berbers and Arabs. Copts • Copts are the Christians of Egypt and they number approximately 8 million. • There are almost 4 to 5 million of them outside the Middle East. • They represent 8 to 10% of the population in Egypt.  Colonialism and the Politics of Oil Christians in the Middle East • There are 4 to 5 million Christians in the Middle East, the majority being in Lebanon. • Roughly eight hundred thousand Christians live in Iraq and many live in Syria and Jordan. There are no native Christians in the Gulf states. • Many Christians played and continue to play important roles in business and academia. Michel Aflaq for instance, one of the founders of the Baath party, was Christian. • Many Christians are concerned with the rise of Islamic fundamentalism. • In Egypt, for example, fundamentalists have sometimes attacked the Coptic minority. • An example of an influential Copt is Boutros Boutros Ghali, former Foreign Minister of Egypt and former Secretary General of the United Nations. • In Iraq, Christians are particularly worried today. Under the Saddam regime they were protected and subsidized by the government. But today many of them are leaving Iraq. • All over the Middle East, Christians are immigrating. Bethlehem no longer has a Christian majority. • Armenians, who belong to the Gregorian church, are an important Christian minority in the Middle East. Armenians were persecuted in 1895 and 1915. • The Turkish Ottomans committed genocide against the Armenians in 1915. • There is a dynamic Armenian community in Montreal numbering over 40,000. Jews in the Middle East • Jews have been living in the Middle East since ancient times. • They have lived with their Arab neighbors in relative peace over the years. • The Romans expelled them in 70 AD and 135 AD from Palestine but they lived in Egypt, Anatolia, Syria, Lebanon and modern Iraq. • Some of the most influential people in Mesopotamia were Jewish. Up to 20% of Baghdad’s population in the 19th century was Jewish. • Jews played an important role in many Middle Eastern states as business people, traders and academics. • There were many Jews in North Africa, especially in Morocco, where they numbered over 300,000 at one point. • After 1948, there was a mass movement out of the Middle Eastern countries for political—not religious—reasons. • In the past, Jews were better treated in the Muslim and Arab world than in Europe. There were no Pogroms in the Middle East like there were in Europe. The appearance of imperialism • After 1918, new states were created in the Middle East. • This was the “end of empires” in the region. • Nation-states were created for the first time in the history of the Middle East. • Nationalism was introduced to the Middle East by Europeans. Three Middle Easter Countries Only three Middle Eastern countries have a historical identity: 1) Egypt • From ancient times, the term “Egypt” referred to the territory around the Nile. 2) Turkey • Turkey emerged from the remains of the Ottoman Empire and was brought forward by Mustafa Kemal Ataturk. 3) Iran • Iran’s history goes back thousands of years. The creation of artificial Nation-states • All of the other nations were drawn up by the colonial powers after 1919. • The French, for instance, created Le Grand Liban. They gerrymandered the sate to come up with a Christian majority. The French wanted to create a Christian dominated state in the Middle East. • Another good example is Iraq, which came about as the union of three provinces: Basra (Shiites) Baghdad (Sunnis) and Mosul (Sunni Kurds and Arabs). • Palestine was also created as a separate state. • Transjordan was given to Abdullah by Churchill in order to convince him not to attack the French in Syria in support of his brother Faisal. • Kuwait used to be part of the province of Basra and the British divided it from Basra without asking for the permission of the people living in the territories. Arab Leadership The Arabs had two centres of leadership in 1916. • One centre was in Arabia (the Arabian Peninsula) and one was in Damascus and Beirut. • In Arabia there was the Hashemite house that controlled the province of Hijaz in which Mecca and Medina, the two holiest cities in Islam are found. • The custodian of these sites was Hussein, the Sherif of Mecca. • In 1916, Hussein called for a revolt against the Turks. • Hussein had three sons: Ali, Faisal, and Abdullah. • Ali stayed with his father. • Faisal was the spokesperson for the Hashemite family, but he was not very keen on rebelling against the Turks. • Abdullah was much more enthusiastic about rebelling against the Turks. • In 1920, Faisal was named King of Syria and Palestine by an Arab congress. • However, this went against the Sykes-Picot agreement between Great Britain and France in which they had agreed that France would have a sphere of influence over Northern Syria and the British would have control of the southern parts. • The French removed King Faisal from Syria. • Later, the British invited him and made him king of Iraq. • Faisal’s brother Abdullah was trying to bring him back to power, but Winston Churchill convinced him not to and the Kingdom of Transjordan was created. • The British made Faisal king of Iraq and Abdullah king of Transjordan. Transjordan • Abdullah ruled Transjordan until July 1951. • His son Talaal did not last very long, ruling for approximately one year. • Talaal’s son Hussein took over after the removal of Talaal and became king in 1953 when he turned 18. He ruled Jordan until 1999, maintaining a close relationship with Great Britain and the West. • The current king is Abdullah II, son of Hussein. • The state of Jordan was created in 1949 after the Jordanians took over the West Bank, including East Jerusalem. • It could no longer be called Transjordan because part of the state was now on the eastern side of the Jordan River. • Today, the Jordanian population is at least 60% to 65% Palestinian. The wife of the current king is Palestinian. • The Palestinian element is very important in the Jordanian political setup. Iraq Iraq was also created by the British. • Faisal became king of Iraq and brought independence to the country by 1932. • Iraq was one of the first states to achieve independence from Great Britain. • Faisal died in 1933 of exhaustion. He had worked very hard to put Iraq together. • He was succeeded by his young son Ghazi, who was not as skillful as his father.• King Ghazi died in a car crash in 1939. His uncle Abul Illah subsequently became regent of Iraq. • In 1953, the young son of Abdullah, Faisal II, became king of Iraq. • King Faisal II was assassinated in 1958 in a revolution that overthrew the monarchy and proclaimed Iraq a republic. • Between 1958 and 1968 there was chaos in Iraq. • In 1968, the Baath party took over and stayed in power until 2003 when the Americans invaded Iraq. • We do not know what the future holds for Iraq. It might stay united, but there is a possibility that it will split into three units: a Sunni, a Shia, and a Kurdish state. The Middle East and Europe • Of all the non-Western parts of the world, except for maybe Latin America, the Middle East is culturally the closest to Europe. • The links between the Middle East and Europe go back to the times of the Greeks and Romans. • The Middle East was part of the Greek and Roman empires. • It was Alexander the Great who built Alexandria in Egypt. Alexandria used to be the biggest city in the region, but it is now preceded by Cairo. • Alexander the Great also built Alexandretta in Syria, which is today part of Turkey and called Iskenderun. • Constantinople in modern day Turkey was built by Emperor Constantine and it was the co-capital of the Roman Empire. When the Roman Empire fell, it became the co-capital of the Byzantine Empire and later the capital of the Ottoman Empire. Christianity It was from the Middle East that Europe was Christianized. • Christianity began in Bethlehem and Jerusalem. • This is an important link in the heritage of European and Semitic civilization. • Later, the crusades came, and despite other downfalls, the crusades were a great period of cultural exchange. Ottomans at Vienna • At the zenith of their power, the Ottomans were at the centre of Europe. • They were at the gates of Vienna twice but failed to capture it. • The Ottomans attacked Vienna in 1529 and in 1683. • Europeans were very worried about the Turkish invasion of Europe. • Nowadays, turkey is attempting to become a member of the European Union and there are almost 5 million Turks in Germany. Love-Hate Relationship • There is a love-hate relationship between the Middle East and the West. • Middle Easterners in general admire the West for its technological and modern achievements.• However, they resent it for colonizing the East. • Some in the Middle East feel that modernization might mean Westernization and they also resent that. • Religious fundamentalists resent the Westernization of their society. • In addition, there is a clash between fundamentalists and those wanting to Westernize Modernization vs Westernization • There is a difference between modernizing and Westernizing. Modernization does not necessarily mean Westernization. • It is possible to modernize without Westernizing. This has been proven by Japan, for instance. Japan has maintained its culture and is today among the most modern states in the world. Following in Japan’s footsteps • Turkey is attempting to follow Japan’s example. • Turkey is a Muslim state. Almost 99% of the population is Muslim. • Some Turks still feel that they should focus on the fact that they are Muslim. • The current Turkish government is a Muslim government. Despite that, it still advocates joining the European Union. Father of the Turks - Mustafa Kemal Ataturk stands out in Turkey’s history. • Ataturk took the Ottoman state that was being humiliated after World War I and brought it forward into a powerful state. • He changed the culture of Turkey. • Ataturk brought about Kemalism, an entirely new approach to Turkey. • Ataturk wanted for Turkey to become a Western-style nation-state. His goal was to bring Turkey closer to the West. Ataturk’s Six-Point Plan of Kemalism 1. Reformism. Ataturk argued against revolution. He insisted that one can reform institutions gradually. 2. Republicanism. Ataturk argued that the sovereign in a nation is not a Sultan or a Caliph but rather the people of the nation who are the sovereign and not the ruler. 3. Secularism. Ataturk wanted a complete separation of religion and politics. This was contrary to the Muslim concept of the nation. He attacked the religious establishment of the Ulema (Muslim scholars) and planned to adopt European codes such as the Swiss and Italian codes. All of this gradually took place. In 1924 he abolished the caliphate, which had been central since 1299. In 1926, he replaced the Muslim calendar with the Gregorian calendar. Ataturk also made Sunday the day of rest instead of Friday, which is the day Muslims go to their most important weekly prayer. It also became a criminal offense to wear a fez or veil. The Quran was translated into Turkish for the first time; in the past it was always in Arabic. The religious establishment lost its influence. 4. Nationalism. Turkey was the first nation in the Middle East to stress the nationalist component. The Latin script for example replaced the Arabic alphabet. Everyone was forced to return to school to learn the new alphabet. Even prayer and the call to prayer were to be recited in Turkish instead of Arabic. 5. Populism. Laws were set up with regard to populist ideals. 6. Etatism (or statism). This was where it was decided that the state was to guide the economy. It was not a departure from capitalism, but it was capitalism that was to be guided by the state. A Delicate Democracy • After Ataturk’s death in 1938, Turkey struggled with democracy. • In 1950, for instance, the opposition won the election and the Democratic Party defeated the Republican Party of Ataturk. • However, in 1960, the army decided to overthrow the government because it was departing form Ataturk’s principles. • The second republic was established. • The army considers itself to be the custodian of Kemalism. • In 2003, the Islamists received a majority in the elections. The army could intervene at any time to overthrow the Islamist government if it deviates from Kemalism. • The European Union would like to see the Turkish army play a less central role. • Today, the Islamist government in power is very careful not to provoke the army. • For instance, the law forbidding veils in public establishments is still followed. Iran • In 1925, Reza Shah was made Shah of Iran. • Reza Shah followed Mustafa Kemal Ataturk’s model. • However, in Iran the religious establishment was more powerful than in Turkey and Reza Shah was not as successful as Ataturk in many respects. • He was forced to resign in 1941 by the British and Russians because he had pro-German sympathies. • Subsequently, his 21-year-old son Mohammed Reza became Shah and ruled from 1941 to 1979. • In 1951, an attempt to overthrow the Shah failed. After that, he brought about the white revolution to redistribute land. • However, when the religious establishment turned against him, his days were numbered. • By 1979, the Shah was overthrown by a religious group. • Ayatollah Khomeini came back from exile in 1979 and established the Islamic Republic of Iran, which is the antithesis of what Mustafa Kemal established in Turkey. Turkey vs Iran • Ultimately, Iran and turkey took two opposing orientations. • They are both experiencing difficulties today, but Iran has the advantage of having oil resources. • Today, Iran has brought about strong opposition to its nuclear program. Foreign Policy in the Middle East 1. Population • There are countries that have very big populations and this has benefits as well as liabilities. • Egypt, for instance, with its population numbering approximately 60 million is having a hard time with employment and housing. • Heavily populated countries in the Middle East include Egypt, Iran and Turkey. • Other countries, such as Gulf states, are under-populated and need to import labor to operate. • Due to demographics, the only Arab state that can fight a war with Israel is Egypt. However, Egypt has a peace treaty with Israel, making any future war unlikely. The Levant states are also smaller in number than Egypt, usually numbering around 5 million. 2. Resources and Natural Wealth • We refer mostly to oil in the case of the Middle East. • In recent times, with very high prices of oil, many countries in the region are becoming richer. 3. Technology • It is amazing to see the technology of states such as the United Arab Emirates or even Saudi Arabia. 4. Industrialization • This technology led to industrialization mainly in the oil sector. 5. Education • Recently, literacy rates have been improving in many Middle Eastern states. • Education is very important for modernization. 6. Political Culture • People constantly talk about the importance of bringing democracy to Middle Eastern states. • However, democracy is not necessarily the ideal type of government for particular cultures. • For example, many of the Sheiks in Gulf states such as Saudi Arabia hold sessions in which the public has direct access to the monarch and ministers. • If someone would want to bring a grievance to the attention of the Prime Minister of Canada, that would be impossible. • The political culture of each one of these countries must be taken into consideration. 7. Economics • The economic factor often determines how the domestic policy moves. In economics, you need to: o Expand o Produce o Industrialize * Diversify • Many Middle Eastern states depend on oil and cannot keep up with the economies of the oil-rich Gulf states. • An interesting example of a Gulf state is Bahrain. After its oil reserves began to be depleted, Bahrain restructured its economy into a banking sector. As the Bahrain example shows, when you have the money, you can expand, produce and industrialize, but you must also diversify your economy. • Even when the components mentioned above are followed, success is not necessarily guaranteed. There is a need for balance in order to minimize social disruptions. If there is no balance in planning, the economy might fail. • If, for instance, the nationalization of every single industry takes place, many of the industries will be mismanaged. • There needs to be a balance between the private and the public sectors. • The Saudis have had success in balancing the private and public sectors. The Saudis, like many other Gulf nations, also invested in the global economy and refrained from isolating themselves. • There must also be a balance between industrialization and agriculture. If a state develops too quickly, then there is a risk of social dislocation, especially when there is no social planning to prevent problems. • Cairo, for instance, faces these problems and this is visible in the presence of shantytowns. Social Disparities and Poverty • People who are dislocated and disoriented in cities are faced with many problems and do not know who to turn to. • Islamist parties provide such people with a sort of social network. • They intervene when there are social crises such as wars or earthquakes. • Moreover, they establish schools and hospitals. • Groups such as Hamas and Hezbollah have gained respect and support due to the assistance they give to the poor. Effects of Colonialism • Colonialism was deeply intrusive. • The best farmlands were taken away from the locals and given to settlers. • Colonialism also redirected entire economies in the Middle East to serve the interests of other powers. • The price of oil used to be determined by foreign powers. This meant the economic and therefore political subordination of many Middle Eastern nations. The Seven Sisisters • At the end of World War II, there were seven integrated oil companies in the world dominating the petroleum market. • The companies controlled exploration, production, refinement and market distribution of oil. In a sense, they controlled the development of oil from beginning to end. • In the 1950s, most known oil reserves were in the Middle East. • However, Middle Eastern nations had very little control over their resources and received very few benefits from their oil production. Middle Eastern nations were denied the true value of the oil wealth. • The governments of the foreign nations in which the Seven Sisters were founded made more money via taxes than the country from which the oil was extracted. Challeneges to the Seven Sistters There were three challenges that faced the Seven Sisters: 1. The first challenge came from former Iranian Prime Minister Dr. Mohammed Mosaddeq, who was elected in 1951. • In 1950, the Anglo-Iranian oil company founded in 1908 published the following revenues: • In 1950, the company made 33 million sterling pounds in net profit. • Great Britain collected 50 million sterling pounds in taxes. • The government of Iran got 16 million sterling pounds. • Dr. Mossaddeq felt that this distribution was unfair and he challenged it. • There was also mounting pressure from the Iranian government. • Dr. Mossaddeq, a nationalist, wanted a larger share of the profit and a clearer expression of Iranian sovereignty over its oil, as well as input on the rate of exploration and production. • He worried about conservation for later generations. • Dr. Mossaddeq also wanted a say on the price. • The Seven Sisters rejected these demands. • So, in 1951, Dr. Mosaddeq decided to nationalize the Anglo-Iranian oil company. • Iran was the first country to challenge the Seven Sisters and ask for sovereignty over its resources. • The Seven Sisters shut Iranian oil off from the world market. Iranians could not sell their oil anymore. • This created a crisis for the government and Dr. Mosaddeq feared for his life. • He actually slept in the Parliament building and refused to leave it. The Seven Sisters overproduced oil elsewhere, pushing the price of oil down. Eventually a counter-coup was organized in which Dr. Mosaddeq was overthrown and the Shah was brought back. 2. Challenge from OPEC • In 1960, six countries formed the cartel known as OPEC. • It initially included three Arab states: Saudi Arabia, Iraq and Libya. • In addition, Iran, Venezuela and Indonesia joined OPEC. • Later, Nigeria and many Arab Sheikdoms such as Kuwait, the United Arab Emirates, Bahrain, and Qatar joined. • In the beginning, OPEC was simply a symbolic ceremonial organization. • However, in the 1960s the consumption of oil began to bypass production. • This served as an advantage to oil-producing companies. • In 1968, the Arab members of OPEC set up the sub-cartel of OAPEC, which tries to guide OPEC. 3. Libya’s victory • In 1969, a new government was set up in Libya by Colonel Gaddafi. • In 1970, one of the first things Colonel Gaddafi did was reject the post-it price of $2 a barrel set up by the Seven Sisters. • Libyan oil is very important due to its good quality. It has very little sulfur in it. • Moreover, Libya is geographically very close to Europe. • Colonel Gaddafi ordered a cutback on oil production. He wanted a quota and justified this by saying that it was done for conservation of natural resources. • He wanted the export of oil to be limited. • The Seven Sisters controlled the production, but he could, for instance, stop them from shipping through Libyan ports. • Colonel Gaddafi succeeded in breaking the cartel when one of the seven oil companies accepted the government’s post-it price. This led to a chain reaction causing all Seven Sisters to give in. The monopoly that the Seven Sisters had over the production of oil in Libya was broken. • This showed OPEC that they could be much more powerful and have a bigger say in how their oil resources were managed. • In a matter of 10 years, the relationship between the Sisters and the oil-producing nation was transformed. • Following these developments, many nations nationalized their oil resources. Nationalization of Oil • Nationalization was not the only new development in the oil industry. • First of all, nationalization in most of the countries involved was only of 51% of the resources. • Forty-nine percent remained under foreign control. • In Iraq in 1972, the foreign shares of three foreign countries (the British, American, and Dutch), each amounting to approximately 24%, were nationalized. The French share, also amounting to approximately 24%, was not nationalized. • In other countries there were participation agreements where the home government and foreign companies worked together and shared the benefits. • Saudi Arabia was one country that had a participation agreement. Benefits of oil revenue • OPEC raised the price of oil from $2 to $4. • In 1973 during the Arab-Israeli War, and in 1979 during the Iranian revolution, the price of a barrel rose to $40. • This rise led to a recession and inflation in many Western countries, including Canada. • Middle Eastern oil-producing countries created a large capital surplus. • This created a division between rich and poor Arab states. • Capital needed somewhere to go, and eventually the investment would create more capital and reinvestment would then start a cycle. • Simply put, money begets money. • The Saudis invested a lot in the infrastructure of their country. • Mud huts were replaced with skyscrapers. • Saudis also invested abroad. • Many other Arab Sheikdoms like the United Arab Emirates are in the same situation as Saudi Arabia. • The Saudi capitalist model served as a model for other Arab Sheikdoms. • To curb criticism from their populations against investment in the West and the lack of democracy and freedom, the Arab sheikdoms of the Gulf provide their citizens with very high standards of living. • There are services such as free health care, education, and housing that citizens do not have to pay taxes on. • The oil pays for these services. In addition to free education, many citizens are sent abroad free of charge in order to obtain a post-secondary education or training. • These benefits lead to political stability. Failure of the Arab Socialist Model • Nasser tried to set up a socialist model by having the state control every aspect of life. • All industries that existed were state controlled. • This changed under Sadat and Mubarak. • Sadat followed a policy of Infitah, or “opening”. • Sadat encouraged foreign investment. • Nasser was not a Marxist socialist. Nasser did not believe in the class struggle. He felt that Egypt was composed of different groups: o Peasants (80%) o Workers o Egyptian national capitalists o Intellectuals o The military • So Nasser spoke of a society composed of five groups working together, including the national capitalists, but excluding international capitalists. • In addition to the failure of the Egyptian socialist model, the Algerian socialist model and the Syrian Baathist socialist model also failed. The Islamic Model • The Islamic model is now becoming visible. • It brings about social welfare and justice, but not in the Marxist tradition.• Islamists insist that social justice is found in the Quran itself. • They have a system of Zakat (charity) by which they support the needy. • Today there are many Islamic banks and institutions. • There are many Islamic organizations such as the Muslim brotherhood in Egypt, Hamas in the occupied Palestinian territories, Hezbollah in Lebanon, the Islamic approach in Iran, and maybe even Iraq in the future. Ideology and Foreign Policy Definition of Ideology • Ideology is the way a society lives. • It is our collective values and experiences. • It refers to the family, religion, tradition and the way we do things. • Not everyone in a society agrees with the established values. • There is a general resemblance of ideologies in the Middle East. • However, not all Middle Eastern nations are identical; there are differences. • Ideology is based on historical experience. • Today we have neo-colonialism. • Many leaders in the Middle East view themselves in relation to colonialism. Irak • After the American invasion of 2003, Iraqi society exploded. • Since the invasion, it has been very difficult to understand Iraqi society. • There is a heavy burden of colonialism and sectarian division in the country that people were previously not aware of. Iran • When the Iranian revolution took place in 1979, the leader Ayatollah Khomeini started interpreting to his own people how he viewed the outside world. • Khomeini used theological words to explain to his people how to interpret a particular society. • He referred to the United States as “the great Satan”. To understand the Middle East, we need to look at three historical phases: 1. The phase of establishment and spread of Islam, from the 7th to the 16th century • During this period there was no separation between religion and state. • The purpose of the state was the spread of the Islamic faith. • Later, the Turks took over from the Arabs at the end of the 13th century and the Turks spread Islam into the Balkans, reaching the gates of Vienna. • Both the Arabs and the Turks argued that in order for the world to achieve a permanent peace, the world had to convert to Islam. 2. 1535 to 1945 • In 1535, for the first time, a non-Muslim state, France, signed a peace treaty with a Muslim state (the Turks). • Until that time, Muslim states could not have peace with a non-Muslim state. • This was when Muslims accepted “co-existence” between Muslim and non-Muslim states. • This consisted of a conscious separation of religious doctrine and foreign policy. • In domestic politics, the caliph was still head of state and head of the religious establishment, and this was not questioned. • However, foreign policy was moved out of the realm of religion. • The Ottomans, who were the universal representatives of Islam, gave a new direction to the Muslim world by making this separation. • After World War I, the Ottomans were no longer the representatives of universal Islam; no one represented universal Islam. 3. World War II until Today • Today, we have Muslim nation states, not a universal representative of Islam. • There are at least 57 Muslim states today and they form an Islamic congress. • In 1947, Pakistan was the first Muslim state to speak of Muslim cooperation. • It was the first time the idea that Muslim states should cooperate was suggested. • In 1967, when east Jerusalem fell to Israeli control, the Muslim world was shocked to see that their third holiest centre, the al Aqsa mosque, was under Israeli control. • In 1969, a conference was called to address this question, and since then an Islamic conference has been held at least once every three years. Distrust of Former Colonial Powers • Most Middle Eastern states distrust Great Britain, France, and more recently the United States. • In the past, most Middle Eastern states were under military occupation. • The last independent Arab state was proclaimed in 1971 when Great Britain granted independence to most of the Gulf States including Qatar, Bahrain, and the United Arab Emirates. • Since 2003, there has been a new military occupation in Iraq. Cultural Colonization • Two of today’s realities are the forces of globalization and Westernization. • All aspects of globalization are currently invading every part of the world. • People are concerned with these changes. • In Egypt, for instance, pictures of celebrities like Michael Jackson have replaced pictures of Gamal Abdel Nasser. • Is the world being Americanized and McDonaldized' The Foreign Policy Process in the Middle East • When examining the Middle East, you will realize that there is an inadequate understanding of how to make foreign policy. • Two elements play a major role in the foreign policy process: 1. Leadership • The leader is the primary determinant of a nation’s foreign policy. • The Foreign Minister is weak and has to do what the president wants him or her to do. • There is no initiative on behalf of the foreign minister. • There is no effective input from the masses. • There is also no impact based on the elite and intellectuals. • The leader makes the decisions. • A leader must have charisma and style, be an excellent orator, and bring about a majority of followers among the masses. • Gamal Abdel Nasser had such characteristics. He was a charmer and people liked him across the Arab world. • He mesmerized people, even those who disagreed with him. • In Turkey, Ataturk also possessed the characteristics of a successful leader. • Some even consider King Hussein of Jordan and Khomeini to have been charismatic leaders. • Competence and responsibility are also important characteristics. • Populism and proximity to the masses are also important for the success of a leader. • A leader must have a vision and be able to express to his people and other nations his vision and objectives. • Among Arab leaders, Gamal Abdel Nasser had the greatest vision, aiming to unite all Arab states. • Today, none of the leaders have that type of vision; they are mostly interested in their own survival. 2. New pragmatism • In foreign policy, there are short-term objectives and long-term objectives. • After World War II, and in the 1950s and 1960s during the Nasser era, the Arab states generally framed their foreign policy objectives using a long-term vision. There was a two-fold objective: 1. Liberation of Palestine 2. Arab unity • This was the cornerstone of Nasser’s policy.• Today, most Middle Eastern nations have more pragmatic short-term objectives. Two Transforming events • The defeat of three Arab states in the war of 1967 and the death of Nasser in September of 1969 were transforming events. • The two events changed the outlook in the Arab world, drastically altering their long-term objectives. • After 1969, the nations of the region became more pragmatic and realistic. • Strategy was going to be replaced by tactics. • Short-term goals were to replace long-term goals. • Arab states were no longer trying to liberate Palestine and achieve Arab Unity. • Realism started to replace idealism. • A spirit of pessimism emerged. • There was change in the mood of the people of the Arab world. • The unity among Arab leaders was being questioned. The rivalry between them started to emerge. • The Arab regimes were very different. • Monarchies and republics opposed each other. • The oil-rich Arab states did not want to unite with the poorer Arab states that would become a burden. • Most importantly was the defeat of 1967, which was referred to as the second Nakba (catastrophe), where Syria, Jordan and Egypt were defeated. • States felt not only that they could not unite but they could not liberate Palestine. • Moreover, the way they were defeated was humiliating. • Even Nasser, one month before his death, accepted a U.S.-backed plan from Secretary Rogers ending the war of attrition between Egypt and Israel following the 1967 war. Emergence of Pragmatic leaders • New leaders were ready to abandon long-term objectives and adopt short-term objectives. • The new pragmatic leaders of the ‘70s and ‘80s were abandoning old political and economic ideologies. • Ideologies such as Arab unity and the liberation of Palestine were abandoned. • Assad, Sadat, Hussein and Mubarak showed a change from the days of Nasser, who had been a great idealist. The effects of oil • After 1970, especially in 1973 and 1979, the petrodollar created a new set of attitudes and values. • States that were becoming rich started to view the world in a different way. • These new oil-rich states wanted technocrats, not ideologues, to run their states. • The new rich states did not want the poorer states to influence them. • They continued to pay lip service to the liberation of Palestine, but would only send money, promising no greater commitment. • The pan-Arabist ideology dissipated after the death of Nasser and King Faisal. • This ideology had disappeared and there was a vacuum in the Arab societies. • The new leaders did not have a vision, they simply had short-term goals. Rise of Pan-Islam • Many people started turning to pan-Islam to fill up the political vacuum left by the failure of Pan-Arabism. • In 1928, Hassan Al Banna founded the Muslim Brotherhood, which advocated the unity of the Muslim people and a return to the concept of the Ummah as well as an abandonment of the nation-state, which was a European creation. • The general goal of Pan-Islam is to make Islam a world power and to deliver Muslims from Western dominance. The Pan-Islam vs Pan-Arabism • The Arab League is a loose confederation of Arab States. • Arab states do not want to unite because they want to maintain their sovereignty. • By refusing to unite, they have permitted the rise of pan-Islam. The three phases in Middle Eastern History 1. Ottoman/Colonial Phase • The Ottoman phase lasted from 1299 until 1918. The center of power was Constantinople. The Empire started becoming weak in the 19th century and regions were gradually given more autonomy. The Ottoman Empire was referred to as “the sick man of Europe” and was kept alive by the help of Great Britain and France. However, after the Ottoman Empire joined Germany, France and Great Britain destroyed it by 1918. • The colonial phase lasted from 1918 until the dependence of Arab states. The French and British gradually took the Ottoman Empire apart. The French took Algeria in 1830, later they took Tunisia, and in 1912 they took Morocco (which was never a part of the Ottoman Empire). Great Britain took control of Egypt in 1882 and Italy took control of Libya in 1911. The Levant (Palestine, Lebanon and Syria) and Mesopotamia fell to colonial powers in 1918. The colonial powers created artificial boundaries and imposed a European system on the region. Great Britain, for instance, imposed institutional monarchy in Iraq. 2. Arab Unity Phase • Arab states are trying to unite and become one state. In 1956, we saw that France and Great Britain wanted to reassert their control over the Middle East, but they failed. It was the last gasp of European power in the region. The Suez crisis was a turning point which ended the colonial period. • The new leaders of the regions, especially Arab nationalists, wanted to achieve real independence by removing all vestiges of colonial power and influence. • This was expressed through the pan-Arabist movement. • When the Arab League was formed, it was initially composed of only seven states: Saudi-Arabia, Egypt, Yemen, Lebanon, Syria, Iraq, and Transjordan. This was the embryonic form through which the Arabs dreamed of eventually achieving unity. Arab nationalists hailed the Arab League and hoped that an Arab nation would eventually emerge. 3. Fragmentation of the Arab Objective • Arab leaders were unwilling to yield their individual sovereignty. Sovereignty was the obstacle to Arab Unity. No regional leader emerged in 1945 after the creation of the Arab League. Each leader wanted to personally dominate the Arab League. • Great Britain and France still dominated the Middle East, undermining any hope for the Arab League to have a real impact on the lives of the Arabs. • Moreover, the educated Arab elite wanted a close relationship with the West for a variety of reasons, one of which included economic benefits. • The Arab league remained weak and divided. • However, it was an example of an emerging focus on achieving independence and autonomy . Four Decades of Changing Political Dynamics Three developments in the Colonial Phase 1. The creation of the state of Israel in 1948: • This led to the Palestine Question. 2. The creation of a Palestinian diaspora • This happened immediately after and during the 1948 conflict. • A second diaspora occurred as a consequence of the 1967 conflict. 3. The Israeli occupation of 1967 • These developments had a tremendous impact on the Middle East. • Power distribution in the region was affected. • There was movement away from the colonial phase to a focus on Pan-Arab aspirations. The Palestine Question • Even in the 1930s, the Palestinian Question was a transcendental issue which affected many states. • Palestine occupied a central place in Arab thought and Arab action. • It offered a basis for nationalist agitation in many Arab countries. • The Palestinian issue brought cohesion to the Arab world before 1948. • Arabs resented British support of Zionism. Creation of Israel • After Israel was created, the Palestinian issue became even more important. • Before the creation of Israel, there was no animosity between the Jews and Arabs in the Middle East. • Relations changed after the creation of Israel in 1948. • After 1967, the Israel-Palestine issue became an international issue and not simply a regional conflict. • American presidents began to focus on this question, especially after Truman. • American President George H. W. Bush was the first American president to recognize the “two state solution”. Palestinian Diaspora • There are millions of Palestinians in the Palestinian diaspora. • This migration affected all neighboring states. • Many people moved to Gaza and the West Bank. • The population of Gaza went from approximately 60,000 to more than one million. • Today, the status of the Palestinian diaspora community is one of the major obstacles in reaching a peace agreement. Israeli Occupation of the Gaza Strip and the West Bank • Israel occupies the Gaza Strip and the West Bank, which included East Jerusalem. • The 1967 war shook the Arab World. • The effects of 1967 are still with us today. • In 2005, Prime Minister Sharon evacuated the Gaza Strip. • Arabs demand an evacuation of all the territories occupied in 1967. The Palestine Liberation Operation • The PLO was catapulted into the international arena in 1974. • The group was given observer status at the United Nations although it was a non-state actor. • A local conflict between two communities became a regional conflict after 1948. • After 1967, the Palestine Question became an international issue. The Arab-Israeli Conflict • The Arab-Israeli conflict has dominated the Middle East for some time. • The conflict was centered primarily on Israel, Egypt, Syria, Jordan and the PLO. • They were the principal actors. Various Aspects of the Conflict • The conflict regarding Israel was a matter of survival. • The PLO, on the other hand, aspired to create a state. • For Egypt, Syria and Jordan the conflict was not as fundamental, but they were directly involved in conflict with Israel. • Turkey and Iran were both allies of the United States in the 1960s and they were not directly involved. The direct Arab cooperation • There is a direct relationship between the Palestine Question and Arab cooperation. • These two core issues were interdependent. • If the Arab-Israeli Question was involved in a crisis, the Arab regimes moved closer together. • If there were reduced tensions between Israelis and Palestinians, then the Arab leaders had no reason to join forces. • The Arab-Israeli conflict ultimately brought Arab countries closer together. • At the UN, for instance, Arab nations consulted each other and voted together. • Moreover, there was economic cooperation between the various Arab states. • At one point, Syria and Egypt united. • Egypt, Libya and Sudan also attempted to unite. The Core issues • The two central issues were Arab unity and the Palestine Question. • Arabs had the same language from Morocco to Iraq. • Arabs were also bound by religion, with 90% of Arabs being Muslim. • Arabs are also bound by history, namely the glories of Islam during the Abbasid period. • They were also once bound together by Ottoman oppression. • Colonial oppression followed Ottoman oppression. Pan-Arabists • Pan-Arabists thought they were destined for a new political reality. • There was a vision of uniting all Arabs from Morocco to Iraq. • Arabs wanted to recreate the caliphate. • They thought of themselves as one nation. • Pan-Arabism began in the 1880s. • However, it was simply an intellectual vision and a dream and no one was ultimately powerful enough to articulate it. Gamal Abdel Nasser • Nasser was capable of articulating the Pan-Arabist vision. • Nasser came to power in 1952 by overthrowing King Farouk. • Millions followed him because of his charisma. • He was popular throughout the streets of the Arab world. • However, Nasser threatened Arab royalty and Arab elites. • Nasser had a vision and clearly articulated Arab thinking and aspirations. • He though Egypt should lead the Arab world. • Nasser linked the question of Arab unity and the Palestine Question. • He believed that the two were linked and that Palestine could be freed only when the Arabs would unite. • Nasser called Israel a Western intrusion in the Middle East, a “new colonizer” of Arab land. • He maintained that the struggle of the Palestinians was the struggle of all Arab people. • Arabs focused on Palestine and used the issue to unite. • However, this stopped after the 1967 defeat of Syria, Egypt and Jordan by Israel. • Nasser resigned after the defeat. • People in the streets nevertheless demonstrated and demanded his return. • Three women burnt themselves in protest, asking for his return. • Nasser was convinced to rescind his resignation and come back to power. • However, he was shaken after 1967. • Nasser died at the age of 51 after his return from Moscow. • Approximately one million people attended his funeral. End of Arab Cooperation • Arab unity began to wane. • There was no longer a charismatic leader to unify Arabs. • Other leaders, such as King Faisal of Saudi Arabia, tried to replace him. • King Faisal was assassinated in 1975. • King Faisal was not as popular as Nasser and cannot be compared to him. • Another attempt to unite Arabs was the Baath party. The Baath Party One of the founders of the Baath party was Michel Aflaq. • Aflaq dreamed of a secular and united Arab world. • The Baath party took control of both Syria and Iraq and was also present in other countries. • However, the two Baath parties in Syria and Iraq came into conflict. • The Baath party had the organization to lead the Arab world but it did not have a charismatic leader like Nasser. President Sadat • When he first took over from Nasser, Sadat wanted to deal with the issues related to the 1967 war. • Sadat asked for negotiations over the territories occupied by Israel. • In 1971 and 1972, he requested discussions, but the international community was preoccupied with other matters. • In 1973, Egypt and Syria went to war to regain the territory they had lost in 1967. • After the war, in 1975, Sadat signed a three-year treaty with Israel to end the state of belligerence. • Sadat signed a peace treaty with Israel in 1979, removing the most important Arab state from the Arab-Israeli conflict. • This was the most important event of the late 1970s. The PLO • Yasser Arafat was the leading figure in the PLO and founder of the Fatah party, which dominated the PLO. • Nasser had created the PLO in 1964. • There were other dissident Palestinian groups that were supported by various countries. • Inter-Arab conflict was reflected within the PLO. The Kurdish Question • The Kurds are a people without a country. • They live in many countries, but primarily in Turkey where there are over 14 million of them. • In 1920, the allies, in the Treaty of Sevres, promised the Kurds that they would have their own state. • This did not happen. • In 1923, the treaty of Lausanne was not favorable to the Kurds. • Kurds were unhappy afterwards. • They were being suppressed in their states of residence. • A big rebellion took place in Iraq in 1960. • Between 1960 and 1971, Iraq was preoccupied in ending this suppression. • In 1971, there was an agreement in which Kurds were to be given some autonomy, but these promises were not fulfilled. • Another rebellion occurred in 1975 with the help of Iran. • Iraqis started drifting away from the Arab-Israeli conflict. • Israel, Iran and Syria supported the Kurdish rebellion of 1975. At one point, Saddam reached an agreement with the Shah to stop supporting the Kurds. • The Iraqi Air Force attacked the Kurds. • Iraq, in exchanged for the Shah’s compliance, expelled Ayatollah Khomeini, who was attacking the Shah from Iraq. • Khomeini went to Paris, but returned to lead the Iranian revolution in 1979. • This led to animosity between Iran and Iraq. • An eight-year war between the two countries followed. (Repetition) Several phases of Middle East History 1. Ottoman/Pre-colonial Phase (632 AD to 1918 AD) • The Ottomans started representing Islam in the 13th, 14th, and 15th centuries. • Before that, Arabs ruled the area. • Between 632 and 1918, the Middle East was not divided. • The region was viewed in a global manner and there were no borders. • The Arabs and then the Ottomans controlled the holy places. 2. Colonial Period • After World War I, there was a significant establishment of colonial institutions in the Middle East. • The region was partitioned. • The colonial period lasted mainly from 1918 until 1956 (the Suez war). 3. Emergence of nation states, from legal independence to real independence • The creation of Israel in 1948 led to a rise in Pan-Arabism. • Arabs thought that they had lost Palestine because they were not united. • Nasser was the driving force behind Pan-Arabism. • In 1967, Pan-Arabism collapsed and started fragmenting. Reasons for disintegrating of Pan Arabism 1. The Egypt-Israel Peace treaty of 1979. 2. The Iran-Iraq war. 3. The Lebanese civil war, which pitted Arab factions against each other. 4. There were also many peripheral issues. 5. There was also a search for Arab leaders after Nasser’s death, but no one could play such a vital role. Emergence of Saudi Arabia • Saudi Arabia began to play a greater role in Middle Eastern politics. • The country’s oil wealth gives it a certain influence over other Arab states. • However, neither Riyadh, Damascus, Cairo, nor Baghdad play a major role in the Arab world today. • The Arab world was fragmented and divided after the death of Nasser and King Faisal. • As a result, there was a shift from Pan-Arabism to individual nationalism. • A vacuum was created as a result of the decentralization of power. • This led to the return of neo-colonialism. • This was specially the case with the invasion of Iraq in 2003. • Two sates—the United States and the United Kingdom—occupied Iraq and created institutions that resemble their own. • Many consider this to be an example of neo-colonialism. • Pan-Islam tries to counter neo-colonialism and tries to fill the vacuum that has been left by the Pan-Arabist vision. • There are many different Islamic groups, ranging from moderates to extremists. • Pan-Islam does not believe in the nation-state. • Muslims believe in the “Umma”, which means ‘the community of believers’. • Islamists want to reestablish the caliphate. Failure of Pan Arabism • It is argued that Pan-Arabism has failed. • Pan-Arabism failed in establishing an Arab state. • Pan-Arabists refer to the Arab peoples using the term “Qawm”. • “Watan” means ‘individual state’, the equivalent to ‘nation-state’ in the West. Divisions among Muslims • There are differences between Muslim sects. • These differences go back to the 7th century, when the prophet died and did not leave a successor. • Some believed that any good Muslim could become the new caliph. • Others thought that only a relative of the prophet could lead the Muslim Umma. • This was similar to a hereditary versus republican battle. • Shiites argued that only descendants of the prophet could be caliphs. • Sunnis argued that any good Muslim could lead the Muslim world. • The Shiite Crescent extends from Iran into Iraq, allied with Syria and represented by Hezbollah in Lebanon. • In addition to that, Shiites occupy the northeast in Saudi Arabia where most of the oil is. • They represent a majority in Bahrain. • They have a significant presence in Kuwait. • Shiites are also 40% of the population in Lebanon. • There might eventually be a union of Shiite states, with Iran the leading nation. The Issue of Palestine • In March 2002, Crown Prince Abdullah of Saudi Arabia brought a proposal through the Arab League. • He offered to end the second intifada, which started in 2000. • He claimed that all Arab states were ready to recognize Israel if Israel would leave the occupied territories of the West Bank (including East Jerusalem), Gaza and the Golan Heights. • He said that this would lead to real peace and to normal relations. New Palestinian Leader • Mahmoud Abbas replaced Yasser Arafat after his death in November 2004. • He convinced the more militant Palestinian groups to end the intifada. Evacuation of Gaza • Prime Minister Sharon unilaterally pulled out from the Gaza Strip. • This created havoc in Israel. • By August 2005, Sharon completed this evacuation. • Sharon also spoke of possibilities of evacuating the West Bank. • This was positive for the peace process. • On January 4, 2006, Sharon suffered a sudden stroke. • This led to new uncertainties in the region. • This was exacerbated by the defeat of Fatah in the Palestinian elections. • The Islamist group Hamas was elected to power; this caused a great deal of concern in the West. • Olmert became the new Prime Minister after the Israeli elections in March 2006. Trouble in Gaza and Lebanon • Skirmishes and the kidnapping of an Israeli soldier led to an Israeli invasion of Gaza. • A similar situation occurred on the Lebanese border with Israel. • This led to an Israeli invasion of Lebanon. • The United Nations asked for a removal of the Israeli forces from Lebanon. The Islands of Abu Musa and the Greater and Lesser Tunb • On November 30, 1971, the United Kingdom granted independence to a number of Gulf States, including the United Arab Emirates (UAE), Bahrain and Qatar. • The Abu Musa and the Greater and Lesser Tunb Islands were located off the coast of the UAE. Geographically, they belonged to the UAE. • Iran was given these islands by Great Britain. • This was condemned by the Iraqis, who felt that they were the guardians of the Gulf States and that these were Arab islands ceded to a non-Arab state. • Iraq took reprisals against Great Britain by taking over certain British Banks in Iraq and by expelling British Petroleum. • Other Arab states did not take up the issue. • The islands are still under Iranian sovereignty today. Peripheral Issues Outside the Arab World • One issue was the question of Eritrea. • Eritrea was ruled by Italy. • After World War II, Eritrea was given to Ethiopia. • The majority of people in Eritrea are Muslim, whereas in Ethiopia the population is mainly Christian and Muslim and the country has a Christian Emperor. • In 1963, the Eritreans began what they called a war of independence. • The superpowers got involved. • The USSR backed the Eritreans. • Ethiopia was backed by the West and especially by the United States. • In 1974, there was a coup d’etat in Ethiopia and a Marxist government took over. • The Soviets shifted their support to back Ethiopia. • Saudi Arabia started supporting Eritrea, with American approval. • Eritrea eventually became independent with United Nations backing and with continuous support from Saudi Arabia. The Ethiopian-Somali Conflict • In 1977-1978, there was a conflict and war between the Marxist Ethiopia and Marxist Somalia. • They were fighting over the Ogaden desert. • The USSR ended up supporting Ethiopia. • Somalia went to Saudi Arabia, which gave it support as well as United States backing. • Libya and South Yemen (the only Marxist Arab state) supported Ethiopia against Somalia. • Jordan and Iraq eventually came to support Somalia. • These nations became preoccupied with other issues. • They were not simply focused on the Arab-Israeli conflict. Arab Cooperation dissipating • Many issues were pitting Arab nations against each other. • The Kurdish issue saw Iraq and Syria on conflicting sides. • Saudi Arabia faced South Yemen and Libya in the Ogaden War. The West Saharan Conflict of 1975 • The West Sahara is in the western part of Africa, south of Morocco. • It was a Spanish colony until 1975. • Spain decided to split the Western Sahara between Morocco and Mauritania. • Morocco decided to march toward the Western Sahara and occupy it. • King Hassan II went to Mauritania with 100,000 Moroccan settlers. • The local population was not pleased with the changes and resisted Moroccan occupation. • This was known as the Polisario resistance movement. • The Moroccans were nevertheless able to occupy most of the territory because they were better equipped and organized. • Algeria and Libya started supporting to the Polisario. • This was yet another problem that damaged Arab unity. * all these issues were happening in the 1970’s 01:56:28 Lecture 4 Lebanese Civil War • The Lebanese civil war lasted from 1975 to 1991. • Lebanon is in the centre of the Arab world. • It is a gateway from the West to the Middle East and vice-versa. • Lebanon has been a model of democracy In the Middle East. • In 1975, there was a sectarian problem related to the distribution of seats in parliament and it led to the civil war. • The problem was present as early as 1967. • There had not been a census taken since 1932, which was necessary to determine the number of seats each religious community was allocated in parliament. • Muslims asked for a new census to be taken in 1958. • Christians sought to count the Lebanese living abroad as well, but Muslims disagreed. • The situation eventually deteriorated and a civil war broke out in 1975. • Other issues, such as the Palestine issue, were also related to the civil war. Lebanon, Microcosm of the Middle East Conflict • Every Arab country had a faction fighting in Lebanon. • For this reason, the civil war was prolonged until 1991. • Syria was mandated by the Arabs to bring in 30,000 soldiers in 1976. • There were also another 10,000 other soldiers deployed in Lebanon. • Saudi Arabia also played an important role. • Syria kept its forces and invaded Lebanon on two occasions, once in 1978 when Israel had invaded Lebanon. • In 1982, Israel invaded once again, reaching the suburbs of Beirut in order to remove Palestinians from southern Beirut. • In 1985, all Israeli forces left the rest of Lebanon but remained in a six-mile area on the border. • The Shiites, particularly Hezbollah, replaced the Palestinians and started resisting against Israel. • The last Israeli soldiers left in 2000. • Israel invaded again in 2006. • The Lebanese civil war ended in 1991. • Democracy and Parliamentary elections were brought back. • Many fear new sectarian tensions in Lebanon. The Iran-Iraq War!!!!!! • This event further fragmented the Arab world. • Iraq started the war in 1980 in response to constant sabotage by the Khomeini regime, according to Iraqis. • The new Iranian government felt that Saddam’s Baathist regime was an atheistic regime and that Islam should prevail in Iraq. • There were a number of bombings in Iraq attributed to Iran. • As a result, Iraq decided to invade Iran and maybe even annex its Arab areas. • Iraq was smaller than Iran, but it had a technological advantage and more advanced weapons. • Iraq was also supported by other Arab regimes such as Saudi Arabia and the Gulf sheikdoms. • Khomeini used to say: “The road to Jerusalem is through Baghdad”. • He maintained that Israel was the ultimate enemy but that they must first go through Iraq. Arab Suuport of Iran • Syria supported Iran economically and psychologically. • This was an important development, as two Baathist Arab states faced each other. • Libya was also sympathetic to Iran and supported the country. • The Iraq-Iran war, which lasted eight years (longer than both World Wars). resulted in over 1.5 million deaths. (Repetition) Elements Negatively Affecting Arab Unity • The Palestine Question and Arab unity were taking second stage to other issues. • These new developments included the 1979 Egyptian-Israeli treaty. • There was also the Iran-Iraq war. • In addition, there was the Lebanese civil war. • All of these elements transformed the core issues in the Arab world. • In all of these incidents, Arabs faced each other indirectly. The 1990-1991Gulf War and the Collapse of Arab Unity (The end of Arab unity dream) • The Gulf War brought an end to the core issues that we have been looking at. • In 1990, an Arab state invaded another Arab state. • Iraq invaded Kuwait, and this was the end of Arab unity and cooperation. • Egypt even sent forces to liberate Kuwait and Syria did the same, although Syria was also placed on a terrorist list by the Americans. • Saudi Arabia also contributed forces since it was in direct danger. • This meant that cohesion among Arabs no longer existed. • Other Arab states, such as Jordan, were sympathetic to Iraq. • Yasser Arafat and Yemen supported Saddam Hussein. • The Palestine Question seemed to have died the 1990s. • However, it did not die. • In 1987-88 the intifada reminded the world that there still was a Palestinian issue and this attracted the United States’ attention. • The United States eventually organized the Madrid conference with the USSR. • Dreams for Arab unity no longer existed.