Linguistics_and_Second_Language_Acquisition._a_Review

Book Review of: Vivian Cook. 1993. Linguistics and Second Language Acquisition New York: St. Martin`s Press (word count: 1518 ) Cook’s work Linguistics and Second Language Acquisition (hereafter LASLA) intends to inform people concerned with language teaching about second language (L2) learning research. Throughout the course of the book, Cook enables the reader to take a close look inside the process of language learning without commending on specific teaching methods. Apart from this, he points out some of the places where research contradicts standard language teaching beliefs. It shows the increase in SLA research within a Universal Grammar (UG) framework. Cook develops his arguments starting from particular aspects of language to more general points. In chapter 1 Cook makes clear that he focuses on linguistics and SLA, not on psycholinguistics, sociolinguistics, or language teaching. However, he refers to works in those areas. In my opinion, this is one of the real strengths of this text: Cook does never lose sight of his domain of coverage, but by citing works outside that domain he shows a breadth and enables the reader to see beyond this area. Afterwards, Cook goes on to comment on early works of relevance to SLA research, mentioning the work of Weinreich on interlanguage and approximative systems. Chapter 2 deals with sequences in SLA, and discusses both the morpheme studies and later studies of negation. The treatment of morpheme studies is excellent, especially the discussion of their many problems. Cook makes an important methodological point in noting that most of the morpheme studies were not really cross-sectional, but rather what he calls single-moment studies. One of the helpful features introduced in this chapter and used throughout is boxed research summaries of major articles. Cook summarises some of the major studies discussed in detail in each chapter, giving the aim, subjects, focus, type of data, method of analysis, and results, in a concise and readable form. Chapter 3 examines in detail the theory of Stephen Krashen. While noting that Krashen's theory seems to agree with that of linguistics (through, for example, the appeal to a Language Acquisition Device LAD), Cook also points out that Krashen's use of terms and concepts from linguistics is quite different from that intended by linguists. Nevertheless, LASLA provides an overview of the arguments of Krashen's theory, as well as a criticism of them. Overall, this is a very balanced and insightful critical summary of Krashen. Chapter 4 takes up sociolinguistic approaches to SLA that is Acculturation, Pidginisation, Creolisation, and Variation Theory. The discussion of the latter is once again balanced and thorough, with reference to the work of Labov, Ellis, Tarone, Huebner, and Young. Cook concludes that variation represents a "rich new area for SLA research, perhaps showing promise for the future rather than concrete results in the present" (p. 89). Coming back to his focus on generative linguistics, he points out fundamental differences between work on variation and Chomsky's idealised speaker-hearer, showing that this idealisation is a big problem for SLA research and that "syntactic variation may have to be reconciled with a description of competence in some way" (p. 91). The work of Pienemann is the centre of chapter 5. Cook presents an explanation of Pienemann's rather complex Multidimensional Model/Teachability Hypothesis, which tries to account for both a similar acquisition order across learners as well as individual variation among learners. According to the research of Pienemann, the former is not open to instruction, but the latter may be. Cook criticises the work of Pienemann for two reasons: the reliance on word order and movement makes it unclear how the model is to apply to languages without movement (such as Japanese), and the conception of movement is analogous to that of earlier transformational generative grammar and does consequently not fit well with current theories. Chapter 6 deals with learning and communication strategies. The discussion of learner strategies leads to the work of O'Malley. Cook provides a list of the various strategies uncovered in this work, but he also criticises O'Malley for some serious methodological problems, such as the use of the native language (L1) for one group of subjects and the use of the second language (L2) for another during interviews. Cook also comments on the work of Faerch and Kasper, Tarone, and the Nijmegen Project on communication strategies. However, his main focus is on the Nijmegen Project, which takes an approach based not only on linguistic realisations but processes as well. Relative clauses are analysed in chapter 7. Much of the important research on SLA and relative clauses is discussed in light of the Keenan-Comrie hierarchy. Again, there is an insightful discussion of research methods (which by now is clearly one of the strengths of LASLA) in relative clause research. Cook notes that while the use of experimental data (e.g., comprehension tests, acceptability judgments, sentence combining) provides different perspectives on knowledge of language than observation of speech performance, it also introduces certain problems. Among these are a lack of comparability among data types, and, perhaps most significant, the fact that "most Second Language Acquisition researchers are not trained psychologists and so blithely undertake experiments that psychologists can easily find fault with" (p. 154). In chapter 8, the topic turns more to the focus of LASLA by taking up Principles and Parameters syntax. Cook provides important terms and concepts, but also refers to his own detailed treatment and the introduction by Haegeman. Given the usual clear explanations, though, reference to those texts is not really necessary for understanding the discussion. Topics covered include X-bar syntax, the pro-drop parameter, binding, and the head-direction parameter. For each, the syntax is explained, followed by discussion of the major research in both L1 and L2 acquisition. This chapter points to the partial convergence of L1 and L2 acquisition research and the potential for such work to inform linguistic theory. As before, there are insightful comments on research methods. Cook ends the chapter with some warnings, namely, that "research that is specific to one particular syntactic analysis has a short shelf-life" (p. 198), and that there is the "danger that second language researchers may forget that their purpose is to discover how people learn L2s, not see if the latest fashion in linguistics can be applied to L2 research" (p. 199). Chapter 9 is the second of two chapters dealing directly with linguistics and SLA, this time covering UG and SLA. Cook provides an overview of some of the basic principles of UG, such as the poverty-of-stimulus argument, and then reviews the SLA research related to access to UG in SLA. Most of this has to do with subjacency and German word order. Cook also discusses the use of grammaticality judgments in SLA research. Overall, LASLA presents an overview of the limits of UG for SLA research. Cook notes that the "homogeneous" L1 competence that underlies L1 acquisition research is lacking for L2 learners, and that being concerned with core grammar, UG has "a part to play [in SLA research] but that part should not be exaggerated; much, or even most, of the totality of L2 learning lies outside the core" (p. 241). The chapter closes with a discussion of what Cook calls "multi-competence," that is, the "multilingual nature of most people's knowledge of language" (p. 245), and Cook points out that this is in conflict with one of the basic principle of UG. He thinks that monolingual competence should not be the model for SLA research. The final chapter of LASLA takes up research based on an assumption that is opposed to that of generative linguistics, that is, that knowledge of language is not acquired differently than other types of knowledge. Works discussed include Anderson's ACT (Adaptive Control of Thought), McLaughlin's information processing, and MacWhinney's Competition Model. Cook points out that such cognitive approaches represent an alternative to a linguistics-based approach. He also refers to several objections linguists have to such research, such as the reliance on negative evidence, the association between frequency and learning, and little or no consideration of grammatical structure. Before ending chapter 10, Cook reminds the reader that "linguistics is only one of the disciplines that SLA research can draw on" (p. 269), and finally he closes by emphasising that SLA research should accept the fact that a monolingual model is not appropriate for the study of L2 competence. I personally enjoyed reading LASLA because it is written in a very concise and readable way with summaries of the most important points at the end of each chapter. All in all, it covers the major tenets of SLA research. Besides, after the final chapter, there is a following section containing some activities for each chapter, which list problems concerning the analysis of L2 data. Furthermore, there are some questions which encourage the reader to think about SLA research discussed in the text, but also to build up one’s personal opinion about the matter. Cook does not want the reader to take everything for granted, but to analyse things critically. However, I think this book is not ideal for all purposes (e.g. teacher training) because it does not comment on specific teaching methods for foreign language teaching, but LASLA cannot be criticised for not being something it was not intended to be.