Leadership

List of Leadership Theory to be discussed in Workshops #1, #2, & #3 (and a few in #4 if necessary). The goal is for each student in the class to end up with a library of 44 pages that summarize the major leadership theory over the past century and to have a working knowledge of each theory. It is important for students to insert notes on the hand-out pages as our discussions progress from the oldest theory to the ones developed in the last few years. I will present Theory #1, #2, #3, & #4 in Workshop #1. Students with #5 through #28 should be prepared for about a 6 minute presentation and a 6 minute discussion in Workshop #2. What isn’t covered in Workshop #2 will be presented/discussed in Workshop #3 (and yes, some may carry over to Workshop #4). The timing specified here is the minimal amount—some theory will generate significantly longer discussions. Each student presenter will develop a one page (this is one page on one side, no more) handout that (a) defines the theory, (2) provides a model (if one is available in the literature or the student develops one on their own, but this does not apply to all theory listed below), and (3) provides some basic discussion bulleted points (some items are provided with each theory below, but the students should go beyond this basic list), and (4) lists earlier theory that relates to this one (please leave some space for the class to modify this list as other theory is presented). The top of each page will have this information: THEORY NAME THEORY # THEORY AUTHOR/YEAR STUDENT NAME 1. Great Man Theory Thomas Carlyle, circa 1840s The ‘original’ leadership theory No strong validation Relates to ‘trait’ theory 2. Scientific Management Frederick W. Taylor (1911), “The Principles of Scientific Management” Industrial Revolution Low level of worker (Follower) trust Relates to Bureaucracy (#3), “Autocratic” side of Autocratic/Democratic (#6), & “X” side of McGregor’s X/Y Theory (#13) 3. Bureaucracy Karl Marx (1880s) developed early theory related to government & society Max Weber (pronounced Vey’-ber), circa 1916, expanded the theory significantly & is given most credit. Formality Limited or no contribution of ideas beyond typical work by the ‘Follower” Developed during World War I (1916)—Weber was a structured German Relates to Scientific Management (#2), “Autocratic” side of Autocratic / Democratic (#6), and “X” side of McGregor’s X/Y Theory (#13). 4. Trait Theory The major theory after World War I No original author, but was studied extensively by Alport (1936) & Stogdill (1948, 1984) Most traits fit into either PHYSICAL (height, weight, race, sex, age, appearance, etc.) or PERFORMANCE (see Big 5 below). The “Big 5 Personality Dimensions” (Five Factor Model) is the main consistent finding in this field. Thus, this is not perceived as a strong theory although it is used extensively by Leaders in the 21st century 5. Behavior Modification (BeMod) B.F. Skinner (1938) Psychology theory (the original subjects were pigeons & rats) that was given some consideration for human “Follower” performance modification. Seems to treat Followers as “Theory X” persons (McGregor, 1960, #13). Pygmalion Management (Livingston, 1969, #17) and Social Learning Theory (#23) are grounded in this theory too 6. Autocratic/Democratic Management Style Kurt Lewin (1939) NOTE: Lewin also developed the seminal formula: B=f(P+E) (1936) & had an early theory of Change Process (1947) A 2-point continuum that addresses levels of authority by the Leader. It suggests some importance & power of the “Follower” but does not discuss this in great detail. In the “Autocratic” area we see Scientific Management, Bureaucracy, Theory X In the “Democratic” area we will see Theory Y and others Be sure to discuss “Laissez-Faire” style too 7. Hierarchy of Needs Abraham Maslow (1943) Similar to Be.Mod Theory (Skinner, 1938)—we are still borrowing theory from the field of Psychology Popular theory due to ease of understanding. Has only limited validation. Is ‘cultural’ specific (i.e., the stages may be different in China, India, etc.) 8. Management by Objectives Peter Drucker (1954) [there is some evidence that he took this theory from General Motors when he was consulting in 1938, but Drucker is given the credit] This was the most popular management tool used for annual planning in the ‘60s and early ‘70s. The tool can work in environments where the “Leader” trusts the “Follower” to be sensitive to the firm’s needs more than their personal needs (many “Leaders” don’t have this confidence and thus try to force decisions upon the “Follower” which negates the power of this theory). Note that this theory invites contribution by “Followers”, a new idea that will become a major part of future theory. 9. Locus of Control Julian Rotter (1954) This can be applied to both “Leaders” and “Followers” but is most often used to asses the “Leader” The External side relates to Scientific Management, Bureaucracy, Group Think. The Internal side relates to Super Leadership, Empowerment, Transformational Leadership. 10. Consideration/Initiating Structure Ohio State Univ. (1957) Validates that many “Leaders” have the option of giving emphasis to the “Worker” (Consideration) or to the “Work” (Initiating Structure). This theory suggests that “Leaders” can be a blending of the two points. This is the start of a major thread of leadership theory—many variations are offered over the next 30 years. 11. Leadership Continuum Tannenbaum & Schmidt (1958) This advanced Lewin’s Autocratic/Democratic Management Style (1939, #6), suggesting that there could be interim variables between the two extremes. Some of the points near the Democratic polar relate to the powers of the “Follower” (see #6 & #8 above, where this theory thread began) but the theory deals mainly with the “Leader’s” processes, not those of the “Follower” 12. Bases of Social Power French & Raven (1958) Excellent investigation of “Power”, identifying these factors: Position Power Legitimate Reward Coercion Information* Personal Power Expert Referent (Charisma) Connectional* (Who we know) *Not a part of the French/Raven theory—it was added later. 13. Theory X/Y Douglas McGregor (1960). Theory advanced in the best-selling book “The Human Side of Enterprise” A 2-point continuum that profiles how managers perceive workers who have motivation (Y) versus workers who lack motivation (X). The overall theory is weak because it is so simplistic, but it pulls together many prior theory and helps generate a lot of interest in the emerging field of leadership theory. Management of “X” workers relates to External Locus of Control (#09), Skinner’s Behavior Modification Theory (#05), along with Autocratic (#06), Bureaucracy (#03), & Scientific Management (#02). Management of “Y” workers relates to Internal Locus of Control (#09), Democratic Management (#06) and MBO (#08) and begins a new field of research/theory development where workers are given more trust/respect. Notice that this theory is advancing a new line of thinking—that “Leaders” need to understand their “Follower” and modify their styles accordingly. Many more theories relating to the “Power of the Follower” will begin to appear in the ‘60s & ‘70s. 14. Equity Theory John Adams (1963) Relates to all workers, not just “Followers” or “Leaders” Note that “Perception” is a key issue here, and workers may not verbalize the existence of their equity concerns. Be sure to address a half dozen options we have when we sense ‘inequity’ exists 15. Team Processes Tuckman (1965) Theory suggests teams go through a consistent pattern Forming, Storming, Norming, Performing, Adjourning* *”Adjourning” was not a part of the 1965 theory—this was added in 1977 to relate to temporary teams. 16. Contingency Model Fred Fiedler (1967) More Worker/Work theory (see also #10, #17) Advances the “Least Preferred Worker” (LPC) analysis. LPC shows the “Power of the Follower” Clearly, this is grounded in the Consideration/Initiating Structure (#10) theory. 17. Pygmalion Management J. Sterling Livingston (1969) Harvard Business Review article “Pygmalion in Management” This is early transformational leadership theory (see #27 in1985) & continues to show the power of the “Follower” This theory suggests that the Follower will rise to the level of the expectations of the Leader. Relates to Internal Locus of Control (#09) among others. 18. Situational Theory Hersey & Blanchard (1972)—Yes, this is Ken Blanchard of “One Minute Manager” (1982) fame. Excellent model is available Leader responds to Follower (e.g., growing power of the Follower) See prior theory: #10 & #16 19. Servant Leadership Robert Greenleaf (1970) Was embraced by many other authors, including Blanchard (see #20 above). Theory gives significant importance to the “Follower” and challenges old theory such as Scientific Management, Bureaucracy, Theory “X”, and Autocratic Management. There is a clear ‘religious’ overtone to this theory 20. GroupThink Janis (1972) NOTE: The term was originally defined by William Wythe in 1952, but no extensive research was conducted until 1972. Political examples help define this (Bay of Pigs attack [1961], Challenger rocket explosion [1986], etc.) Relates to “Abilene Paradox” (#33) 21. Leader-Member Exchange (LMX) Several authors in the mid-1970s Recognized the importance of the relationship between the Leader-Member (i.e., Follower). Theory also recognized that these relations can vary widely based on the Leader’s perception of the Member (Follower): In-group vs. Out-Group. The In-Group/Out-Group component relates to Fiedler’s LPC (1967)—see #16. This is NOT a theory we want to practice (but we can all see examples of this in practice today). 22. A/B Folly Steven Kerr (1975) “On the Folly of Rewarding A, While Hoping for B” in Academy of Management Executive Addresses organizational failure to motivate Followers: “It’s the reward system, stupid!” 23. Social Learning Theory (SLT) Albert Bandura (1977) Simple theory, but very powerful and important. Modeling and vicarious learning drives learning and follower practices Relates to Servant Leadership, Behavior Modification, & Substitutes for Leadership 24. Team Member Conflict K. W. Thomas (1974) Extended work in the new field of teams (initiated by Tuckman, 1965) Good 2-dimentional model is available where 5 key responses are profiled (CACAC) Relates to Social Learning Theory, Empowerment, & Locus of Control 25. Substitutes for Leadership Kerr (see #22 above) & Jermier (1978) Leaders need to find a variety of ways to motivate Followers, even when the Leader is not present Our text does not do a good job summarizing this theory, please search further or chat with me about this important theory. Discuss this relative to “Laissez-Faire” leadership (#6). Can be applied relative to many other theory such as Social Learning Theory, Servant Leadership, Super Leadership, Bureaucracy, Internal Locus of Control, A-S-A, Empowerment. 26. Transactional Leadership James Burns (1978) This is often related to “Management”, as a precursor to the Transformational Theory (#27) that relates to “Leadership” Application of this theory relates to Be. Mod, Bureaucracy, Theory X, Position Power, & Autocratic 27. Transformational Leadership Bernard Bass (1985) wrote extensively and is given primary credit. James Burns (1978, see #26) presented the early concept Application of this theory relates to Social Learning Theory, Pygmalion Management, Servant Leadership, Personal Power, Theory Y, & Super Leadership. 28. Self-Leadership Charles Manz & Henry Sims (1980) Calls for the “Leader” to also perform the role of “Follower” and to lead themselves through training and motivation and reward. This is the only theory we study where the “Leader” and the “Follower” are the same. This is an especially important theory in entrepreneurship. Can relate to “Laissez-Faire” management. Also relates to Social Learning Theory, Empowerment, Transformational, & Goal Setting. 29. Management by Wandering Around (MBWA) Tom Peters & Robert Waterman (1982)—“In Search of Excellence”, a “Best Seller” Relates to Servant Leadership, Pygmalion Management, Social Learning Theory, & Transformational Leadership 30. Goal Setting Theory Edwin Locke & Gary Latham (1984) NOTE: There were earlier ideas in this area, but these two have written extensively on the subject and are given most recognition for theory development. S-M-A-R-T (and feedback too) Strong empirical support for this powerful theory, especially for factory/production work. Relates to A/B Folly, Locus of Control, Equity Theory, MBO, & Be.Mod. 31. Leadership Grid Robert Blake & Jane Mouton (1985) Grounded in Worker/Work theory (#10 plus others). Coined ‘cute’ names/descriptions for 5 different positions on the grid. Nice model is available. Consider the existence of “Laissez-Faire” in the 1/1 corner. 32. Attraction-Selection-Attrition (ASA) Process Benjamin Schneider (1987), in his seminal article “The People Make the Place” Addresses how workers/firm relate to each other Strong empirical support for this theory. Relates to Social Learning Theory, Theory Y, GroupThink, & Locus of Control. 33. The Abilene Paradox Jerry Harvey (1988) Relates to GroupThink (see #20), Locus of Control, Bureaucracy, & Be.Mod. 34. Empowerment No single author or date—the term has existed for many years, but this form of leadership theory grew significantly in the late ‘80s after Bass’ work in Transformational Leadership (1985), see #30. This also relates to the “Power of the Follower” thread. Relates to MBO, Self-Leadership, Substitutes of Leadership 35. SuperLeadership Charles Manz & Henry Sims (1990) This was grounded in their self-leadership theory (1980)—see #28. SuperLeadership calls upon the “Leader” to “help others to lead themselves”. This theory relates closely to Pygmalion Management (#17), Servant Leadership (#19), Locus of Control, Substitutes of Leadership, Empowerment. 36. Emotional Intelligence (EI) Salovey and Mayer (1990) defined the term and initiated the field of study but Daniel Goleman (1995 & several other publications thereafter) wrote extensively on the area and is given much of the credit. A “Soft” view of leadership where feelings and sensitivity to self and others is given paramount importance. This theory may relate to the growth in female leadership. Relates to Servant Leadership, Equity Theory, Trait Theory, SLT, Theory Y. 37. Styles of Followership Robert Kelley (1992) Developed a 2-dimentional theory and titled 5 key positions in the model. This can be in response to almost any leadership theory that addresses the action of the “Leader”. Good model is available Relates to LMX, Super Leadership, MBO, Good article at: http://www.innovation.cc/discussion-papers/blackshear-emp.pdf 38. Change Process Kurt Lewin (1947) theorized an overly simplistic 3-step process John Kotter (1996) offered an 8-step process which recognizes more importance to the Follower and to the Leader-Member Exchange (LMX), #21. Interesting to compare the 7 levels of the Leadership Continuum (#11) to Kotter’s Change Process. Also good to relate Lewin’s 3-steps to Kotter’s 8 steps Relates to Empowerment, LMX, Be.Mod., Substitutes of Leadership See information at: http://www.theartofchange.com 39. Level 5 Leadership Jim Collins (2001) from the popular book “Good to Great” Coined the term Big Hairy Audacious Goal (BHAG) ASA Theory (#32) and Servant Leadership (#19) are grounded here, among others. “Humility” is a key differentiating characteristic for this Leader. Relates to Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs, Pygmalion Management, and Transformational Leadership 40. QBQ! The Question Behind the Question. John G. Miller (2001) identifies “Personal Accountability” as a major factor that drives team success / failure. The initial question is “What went wrong” or “Who is to blame” when the QBQ should reflect personal accountability: “What can I do to fix this issue”. Relates to Locus of Control, Followership, Substitutes for Leadership, Social Learning Theory, Super Leadership http://www.qbq.com 41. The “No Asshole” Rule Robert Sutton (2007) wrote this small book (200 pages). Relates to a culture where the attitude of the workers drives the hiring and corporate advancement, possibly more than knowledge and other factors. This may be driven by leaders, followers, and/or peers. Relates to Trait Theory (#4), Bases of Social Power (#12), Pygmalion Management (#17), Social Learning Theory (#23), & ASA (#32), Locus of Control, Group Think, & One Bad Apple 42. One Bad Apple Spoils the Whole Bunch Will Felps (2008) posits an emerging theory that addresses the power of the ‘weak link’ in work teams. This clearly relates to “No Asshole” (#41) and ASA, SLT, Empowerment, Abilene Paradox. http://www.thislife.org/Radio_Episode.aspx'sched=1275 43. Leading with Kindness William F. Baker & Michael O’Malley (2008) wrote a popular book that studies ‘kind’ leaders, indentifying attributes and work outcomes and risks. Relates to Trait, ASA, Empowerment, Emotional Intelligence, Level 5 Leadership, Servant Leadership. 44. Tribes Seth Godin (2008) wrote a small easy-read book. A tribe is a group of people connected to one another, connected to a leader, and connected to an idea. The subtitle of the book highlights the message: We Need You to Lead Us. Godin encourages readers to find their tribe, step up, and lead. The discussion leader should read the small book or—at a minimum—do a ‘google’ search (godin tribe) to review a variety of views about this new thinking.