Knowledge_Management_in_the_Public_Sector

CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION 1.1 BACKGROUND A public institution is a juristic person  which is controlled by the state. Typically, a public institution will have a board of trustees who govern the institution and the members of the board are public officials who are appointed by the state (typically a person in the executive branch such as a state governor) for a fixed term of years. Public institutions, like private companies are faced with increasing demands when it comes to improving service quality and productivity. In law, whether an institution is public or private determines how bound the institution is to the requirements for civil rights to which the state must conform (Wikipedia.com). Efficiency is accomplishment of or ability to accomplish a job with a minimum expenditure of time and effort. The ability of public institutions to be efficient depends on many factors including clearly defined objectives, less bureaucratic hurdles, flatter administrative structures, effective systems and a highly skilled motivated workforce. The challenge to public institutions is how to get highly skilled motivated workforce to implement tactics and programmes to achieve these objectives in an efficient manner. Knowledge Management (KM) is a means of improving and overcoming this challenge. KM comprises a range of practices used in an organisation to identify, create, represent, distribute and enable adoption of insights and experiences. Such insights and experiences comprise knowledge, either embodied in individuals or embedded in organisational processes or practice (Becerra-Fernandez et al., 2004). Knowledge Management efforts typically focus on organisational objectives such as improved performance, competitive advantage, innovation, the sharing of lessons learned, and continuous improvement of the organisation. KM efforts overlap with Organisational Learning, and may be distinguished from it by a greater focus on the management of knowledge as a strategic asset and a focus on encouraging the exchange of knowledge. 1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM Knowledge may be accessed at the three stages, before, during, or after KM-related activities. Different organisations have tried various knowledge capture incentives, including making content submission mandatory and incorporating rewards into performance measurement plans. Considerable controversy exists over whether incentives work or not in this field and no consensus has emerged. One strategy to KM involves actively managing knowledge (push strategy). In such an instance, individuals strive to explicitly encode their knowledge into a shared knowledge repository, such as database, as well as retrieving knowledge they need that other individuals have provided to the repository. Another strategy to KM involves individuals making requests of experts associated with a particular subject on an ad hock basis (pull strategy). In such an instance, individual(s) can provide their insights to the particular person or people needing the knowledge (snowden 2002) Customs, Excise & Preventive Service (CEPS) has established an automated system that it uses as its knowledge management tool. The system provides the center for knowledge codification, knowledge transfer and knowledge work in the service. The Ghana Community Network GCNet is the system management of CEPS has establishes to achieve this objective. Being a new introduction, CEPS Officers are periodically called for training on the system. The objectives of the training are to provide the requisite knowledge for officers to effectively and efficiently use the system, to collect the required taxes and to bridge the gap between tacit (what officers know) and explicit knowledge (what has been incorporated in the system). Officers are also encouraged to share their experiences and make suggestions on how to improve the system. Since it establishment, there has not been any scientific study on the effect of the system on the service’s efforts to maximize revenue and halt the revenue leakage though under valuation and under invoicing. As institution charge to collect more than 50% of tax revenue, the impact of the system is of significant importance and the researcher seek to investigate the effect and challenges of the system. 1.3 RESEARCH OBJECTIVE The objectives of the study are to; 1. Identify how the GCNet has affected knowledge codification practices within Customs, Excise and Preventive Service (CEPS). 2. Identify the impact of the GCNet on knowledge transfer process in Customs, Excise and Preventive Service (CEPS). 3. Assess how the GCNet has affect knowledge application in CEPS. 4. Analyze the impact of the GCNet on CEPS efficiency. 1.4 ASSUMPTION The researcher assumed that the GCNet has been established to facilitate the transfer and usage of knowledge within Customs, Excise and Preventive Service (CEPS). 1.5 HYPOTHETICAL QUESTIONS The study would seek to answer the following questions; 1. Has the GCNet system affected the knowledge codification processes of CEPS' 2. Does the GCNet system facilitate knowledge transfer within CEPS' 3. Has the GCNet contributed to knowledge management in CEPS' 4. Is knowledge management an effective method to increase organizational efficiency' 1.6 SIGNIFICANCE OF STUDY The study is important for the following reasons; 1. It provided information on how knowledge is managed and processed in a public institution in Ghana using a computerized system. 2. It showed the impact of computerization on the efficiency of public institution in Ghana. 3. It forms a basis for further studies on knowledge management in public institutions in Ghanaian. 4. It served as current literature and reference material for students who would conduct future studies on knowledge management in public institutions. 1.7 SCOPE OF STUDY The study focused on the effect and the impact of the GCNet on knowledge management in CEPS. It investigated the role that the system plays in knowledge codification, knowledge transfer and knowledge work in the service. The study also assessed the impact of the GCNet system on the efficiency of the service. The study used data collected from officers stationed at three collections points (Headquarter, KIA and James Town) in the greater Accra region during the period January –June 2009. 1.8 LIMITATION OF THE STUDY The study investigated the effect and impact of the GCNet system without analyzing the modules of the systems. The study also did not investigate the financial implications of the systems in the service. Secondly, the study collected data from only 3 collections out of a total of 15 collections in the service. A national wide study would have ensured adequate findings of the effect of the GCNet system on knowledge management in the service. Finally, Lack of funds limited the sample size used in the study because of transport and printing cost. Combining normal academic work with the study also limited the time available to the researcher. 1.9 CUSTOMS, EXCISE AND PREVENTIVE SERVICE The Customs, Excise and Preventive Service (CEPS) came into being with the promulgation of the Customs, Excise and Preventives Service Law, 1986 (P.N.D.C.L 144). This law strengthened and gave the Preventive functions at the frontiers and exit points for which the erstwhile Border Guards were previously responsible to the then Customs and Excise Department, a department under the Civil Service governed by N.R.C.D. 144. New administrative structures were put in place in accordance with its corporate and quasi self-accounting status. 1.9.1 Vision Is to provide a world class customs services 1.9.2 Mission Statement “Our Mission is to collect, account for and protect customs, excise and other assigned indirect tax revenues in a timely manner whilst facilitating trade, investment and the movement of people and goods across and within the borders of Ghana”. 1.9.3 Policy Statement It is the policy of the Customs, Excise and Preventive Service to: 1. Provide service that is efficient, fair and transparent. 2. Provide sufficient resources to ensure we are effective in the performance of our duties 3. Recruit, train and maintain a highly qualified and motivated workforce. 4. Ensure the public is aware of our contribution to the nation. 1.9.4 Motto Pledge to work with Patriotism, Honesty and Fairness. 1.9.5 Areas of Responsibility Customs plays a key role in handling commercial activities at the sea and air ports and borders by ensuring compliance with national and international laws governing trade. It traditionally fulfills a three-fold mission: A fiscal mission, of collecting revenue for the State; an economic mission of helping businesses to be more competitive and compiling foreign trade statistics; and a mission of protecting society which involves combating fraud, smuggling, terrorism and organized crime, counterfeiting, piracy, human and drug trafficking among others. CEPS also implements government policy in order to ensure compliance with national and international regulations in force regarding the environment. 1.9.6 Administrative structure CEPS are under the Ministry of Finance and are governed by the Revenue Agencies Governing Board. Internal Revenue Service (IRS) and the Value Added Tax (VAT) are the other agencies under the Revenue Board. Administratively, CEPS is divided across the country on Collection basis. CEPS has (15) fifteen Collections with close resemblance to the administrative demarcation of Ghana. All the Collections are headed by an Assistant Commissioner. Officer of the service are transferred across the Collections on a four year calendar. 1.9.7 Staff strength The staff strength of CEPS is about 3500. Officers are stationed across the country and are present at all entry and exit points of the country. 1.9.8 Automation of Procedure CEPS have automated many of its operations through the Ghana Community Network GCNet. The GCNet System is made up of two systems 1 TradeNet: An EDI Platform for Transmission of Electronic Messages (CUSDECs / CUSRES) Between Trade Operators and CEPS on one hand and other Regulatory Agencies on the other 2 GCMS: A Versatile Automated System for Processing All Customs Operations Electronically ( Manifest Integration, Validation of Entries , Payments, Warehousing, What System Does 1 Allows 24hours per week Submission of Declarations and Validations 2 Provides Single Window for Processing Trade-Related documentation by Authorized Agencies 3 Provides Platform for Centralized Verification of All Entries 4 Incorporates Selectivity Module to profile consignments into high and Low risk (Physical Examination /Document Verification) 5 Provides Systematic Monitoring of Consignment Movements. 1.10 ORGANIZATION OF STUDY The research study is organized in five (5) chapters and the outline is arranged as follows. * Chapter one is the introduction and it present the background of the study, discusses the statement of the problem and present the objectives of the study. It also presents the assumption, the significance, scope and limitation of the study. Finally, it presents the profile of the study organization (CEPS). * Chapter Two- Literature Review brings to the fore data as well as other related facts about the topic under discussion from many sources of relevance and other works conducted in this dimension shall be analyzed in the light of the objectives set at the beginning of this work. * Chapter Three- Methodology highlight on the population of study, sampling technique, methods of analysis, research instruments and their administration methods. * * Chapter Four analyzed the data collected and presents the findings arrived at the ground through the administration of structured questionnaires and other methods. * Chapter Five- gives a summary of findings arrived after the study and gives fitting conclusions thereon and adduce forward possible workable recommendations to be considered in the light of the findings arrived at through the analysis of the topic. CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW 2.0 INTRODUCTION This chapter presents a review of literature on knowledge management. It deals with various aspect of the study area and also reviews theories on the subject, 2.1THE CONCEPT KNOWLEDGE Knowledge is quite different from data and information in nature, although sometimes people use the three terms interchangeably. (Becerra-Fernandez, Gonzalez & Sabherwal, 2004). 2.1.1 DATA Data consists of facts, results from observations and explorations and experiments. Data shows raw numbers or claims so it does not have meaning by its own. However, data is still needed for any organization. It is important for workers and companies because it is the raw material for analysis to create information. For example, a sales order is just data; it does not have meaning for anyone if it is not transformed to other things that have meaning. Although data does not have meaning or goal, it is easy to be captured, stored, transferred and communicated by using electronic or other media (Davenport & Prusak, 1998; Becerra-Fernandez et al., 2004). 2.1.2 INFORMATION Information is a part of data. It generally involves transforming, sorting and organizing raw data to gain a more meaningful indication of patterns in the data that information has an impact on people’s decision or behavior (Becerra-Fernandez et al., 2004). For example, after transforming a sales order into daily sales, daily sales report can be used to give meaning for a manager to make a decision on what to do next. 2.1.3 KNOWLEDGE Becerra-Fernandez et al. (2004) judge knowledge to be at the highest level in a hierarchy with information at the middle level, and data to be at the lowest level. According to this view, knowledge cites to information that enables action and decisions, or information with direction. Knowledge is a fluid mix of framed experience, values, contextual information, and expert insight that provides a framework for evaluating and incorporating new experiences and information (Davenport and Prusak, 1998). It originates and is applied in the minds of knowers. In organizations, it often becomes embedded not only in documents or repositories but also in organizational routines, processes, practices, and norms. Knowledge helps in producing information from data or more valuable information from less valuable information. Thus, knowledge is basically similar to information and data, although it is the richest and deepest of the three, and is consequently also the most valuable (Becerra-Fernandez et al., 2004). 2.2 KNOWLEDGE CREATION All strong companies create and use knowledge. When these companies have to interact with their environments, they get information, transform into knowledge, and use it in making a decision based on their experiences, values, and internal rules. If a company does not have knowledge, it cannot manage itself to be a strong company. To create knowledge, Davenport and Prusak gave five ways of knowledge creation: acquisition; dedicated resources; fusion; adaptation; and knowledge networking. - Acquisition: The most effective way to get knowledge is to buy it. A company can buy from another company or hire individuals that have knowledge. Some companies can have knowledge by renting it. - Dedicated resources: Some companies generate knowledge by establishing units for specific purpose. - Fusion: Fusion is a method to create new synergy by bringing people from different departments to work together on a project. - Adaptation: New products, new technologies, and social and economic changes can drive a company to change and adapt to survive in business. - Knowledge Networks: Informal networking among people can create knowledge. When a company creates knowledge, it has to concern itself about interactive team working process. This process involves different backgrounds, cutting across organizational boundaries, and combing skills, artifacts, knowledge and experiences in new ways. There is an assumption that when people work together, they can produce more creative results than when they work individually. It is hard to establish effective teamwork because people have different backgrounds and different knowledge bases. Team working is a key factor to create knowledge with mutual understanding of deep tacit knowledge based on shared experiences together for a long time. Tacit knowledge is knowledge that is in people’s heads and it is hard to explain or communicate with other people. Explicit knowledge is knowledge that can be expressed in text form or by speaking. Explicit knowledge is easy to explain and communicate. Good personal relations are necessary for the sharing of tacit knowledge (Newell et al., 2002). Although different knowledge from various sources tend to make a conflict of ideas, this conflict can create creativity. This creativity will be built when the individuals work together and communicate with each other. It is not only just social skills that make people understand each other, but it also depends on cognitive skills that make them comprehend each other (Leonard-Barton, 1995). 2.2.1 KNOWLEDGE CODIFICATION This method is about making knowledge accessible for whoever wants it. This process will transform knowledge into a code to make it as structured, explicit, transferable, and easy to understand as possible. Each of these codes has its own particular set of values and limitations, and they can be used single or in combination. New technologies have a vital role to codify knowledge and make the prospects for these activities (Davenport & Prusak, 1998). Davenport and Prusak gave four rules for companies to follow: 1. Managers have to identify what business goal that the codified knowledge will supply. 2. Managers can specify knowledge that exists in many forms to achieve those goals. 3. Value and suitability of knowledge must be evaluated by knowledge managers. 4. A proper medium must be identified for codification and distribution in the company. 2.2.2 KNOWLEDGE TRANSFER Knowledge is naturally transferred in every organization whether or not the process has been managed at all (Davenport & Prusak, 1998). For example, when a practitioner asks the senior employee about the needs of a particular customer, they are exchanging knowledge. It is difficult to transfer tacit knowledge from the resource that creates it to other parts of the company. The company should use knowledge transfer that suits the organizational culture. Davenport and Prusak (1998) recommend that the company should encourage knowledge sharing among business units by creating places and giving opportunities for employees to interact formally. Knowledge transfer should be supported in personal meetings in addition to more structured forms mentioned above. Normally, to transfer tacit knowledge, it requires strong personal contact. Suitable knowledge should be stored in procedures or described in papers and databases and transferred accurately. 2.2.3 KNOWLEDGE WORK Naturally, knowledge is needed for all work in every occupation, even simple work. However, the term ‘knowledge work’ tends to be applied to specific occupations exploiting theoretical knowledge, creativity and social skills (Newell et al., 2002). Knowledge work is used to refer to as professional work, such as accountancy, scientific and legal work. This type of knowledge work depends on the application of both tacit and explicit knowledge. Employees involved in this type of work need to make their decision by themselves about what and how to do their work. So these knowledge workers should have high education and specialist skills (Newell et al., 2002). 2.3 POSSIBLE PROBLEMS IN KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT 2.3.1 SPACE AND TIME LIMITATIONS While advancement in computer and technology have helped individuals to link with each other, personal contact which is factor in tacit knowledge sharing can be overlooked in the new knowledge economy. The emergence of virtual space does not decrease significance of physical space (Kimble et al, 2000). Even though people have the fast pace of technology to communicate and the ability to transfer data across distances, they still want to make contact with others in person by gathering together for events, hand shaking and hugging (Sherron and Boettcher, 1997). Time is another factor that needs to be considered because virtual communities or online societies make people work with their colleagues anytime and anywhere. For example, an employee can work at four o’clock in the morning with other employees from other continents (Kimble et al, 2000). Another aspect of time is obsolete knowledge. Although sharing knowledge over time is seen as important, people should not overestimate past knowledge. Knowledge from the past cannot always serve as a basis for the work of today; things can change quickly and radically in innovating industries (Barnard, 2005). 2.3.2 THE LACK OF FACE-TO-FACE COMMUNICATION In many cultures, the face-to-face meeting is the perfect example for the meeting of minds. When people meet physically with each other, communication is smooth and sound. However, the space and time limitations in online society make face-to-face communication impossible. Knowledge Management researchers support the presence of other members in the community which is the important key for knowledge creation and sharing. Today people have a lot of activities to do, such as working and learning, from other parts of the world. In order to solve the problems, they can use technologies such as video conferencing to create a telepresence that they can communicate anywhere and anytime. They can create virtual teams to work efficiently when having the face-to-face communication where they can overcome the issue of trust and ambiguity surrounding in the virtual world (Kimble et al, 2000). 2.3.3 LANGUAGE AND CULTURAL BARRIERS Not only the physical distance and time difference limitations or problems that members in online society have to confront, but also they may face other obstacles to communicate with each other, such as language and cultural barriers. Although people normally use English to communicate or do business worldwide, many people do not have the ability to understand and communicate in English (Van den Branden, 2001). Language therefore can be a of barrier that can hinder people in online society to transfer and share knowledge with others. When people have to share knowledge with others from different cultures, they have to use additional effort (Barnard, 2005). Culture may also hinder people in online society to create and share knowledge with each other. People who come from different parts of the world may have different cultures, behaviors, goals, and motivation that make it difficult for them to communicate and get knowledge from what other people try to explain. 2.3.4THE PROBLEM WITH TRUST Trust has played an important role in knowledge sharing. It plays a more essential role when it has to be created in an online or virtual environment. Handy (1995) has emphasized the importance of trust in an online society. He considers that trust can occur when people are not complete strangers to one another. He also maintains that establishing trust is hard if people have not worked together before, or they have no face-to-face contacts. People increase the sense of trust that allows them to create new knowledge and share that knowledge with other people in the community through good relationships. 2.3.5 LOW LEVEL OF TEAMWORK Online communication in virtual communities differs from face-to-face communication. As mentioned earlier, due to the space and time limitations, the lack of face-to-face communication may result in the problem with trust, identity and commitment in online societies. These can make people feel reluctant to share their knowledge and work together. Knowledge that is not shared will loose its relation quite quickly. There is evidence that the environment that supports trust, care, and personal networks among employees is one of the most important conditions for high level of collaboration, knowledge creation and knowledge sharing (Kimble et al, 2000). 2.3.6 LACK OF TIME AND HEAVY WORKLOAD One of the barriers to knowledge sharing is that people are too busy to share their knowledge and to answer the questions they are asked. Many people cannot deal with overloaded information from many sources such as e-mails. When some people are too busy to answer the questions, others who ask the questions will suffer from inadequate knowledge (Barnard, 2005). 2.4 KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT SHARING Knowledge has become one of the important parts of any company. Companies face the challenge about using and creating knowledge. When technology is used to manage knowledge, it means that the knowledge can be collected, stored and accessed to improve the job. While human knowledge may be an organization's most valuable asset, much of this knowledge has never been shared. Harnessing critical knowledge and using it to create a common vision and objectives can move an organization closer to high performance workplace. Many researchers maintain that it is essential to create a knowledge sharing culture as part of Knowledge Management (Harris, 2006). 2.4.1 THE IMPORTANCE OF SHARING KNOWLEDGE Nowadays the creation and application of new knowledge is essential to the survival of most companies. There are many reasons why knowledge sharing is important (Gurteen, 1999). - Intangible products - ideas, processes, and information - are growing in the share of global trade from the traditional, tangible goods of the manufacturing economy. - The application of new knowledge is increasingly important in the society. The continuous innovation process will sustain the competitive advantage. - Increased turnover of staff. People do not take a job for life any more. When they leave an organization, their knowledge is gone with them. - Large global or even small geographically dispersed organizations do not understand what they know in the whole picture. Expertise learnt and applied in one part of the organization is not leveraged in another. - Fast changing technology in businesses and societal evolution can cause knowledge to be obsolete. As things change so quickly, in some companies, their knowledge base declines. As much of 50% of what the staff knew five years ago is probably obsolete (Gurteen, 1999). 2.4.2 BARRIERS OF KNOWLEDGE SHARING These are some barriers that obstruct companies to transfer knowledge in their companies Davenport and Prusak gave barriers affecting knowledge transfer in companies and they also give possible solutions for each barrier. Knowledge sharing barriers and possible solutions - Lack of trust - Different cultures, language and frames of reference - Lack of time and meeting places; narrow idea of productive work - Status and rewards go to knowledge owners - Lack of absorptive capacity in recipients - Belief that knowledge relates to specific groups - Intolerance for mistakes and lack of help - Build relationships and trust through balancing between virtual and face-to face meeting - Confirm that the communication’s approaches supports knowledge transfer - Create common ground through teamwork, job rotation and other types of collaborative working - Establish time and places for formal and informal knowledge sharing - Evaluate performance and provide rewards to those who share and reuse knowledge - - Establish an environment where quality of ideas is more important than status of source - Tolerate and reward errors from creative collaboration and help a person learn from these 2.5 THE CONCEPT OF CULTURE 2.5.1 CULTURE DEFINITION Culture is the system of shared beliefs, values, customs, behaviors, and artifacts that the members of society use to cope with their world and with one another, and that are transmitted from generation to generation through learning (Matthews, 2001) defines Unesco (2002) also defined culture as “the set of distinctive spiritual, material, intellectual and emotional features of society or a social group, and that it encompasses, in addition to art and literature, lifestyles, ways of living together, value systems, traditions and belief.” 2.5.2 CORPORATE CULTURE Corporate culture is a phenomenon of a different order from national cultures, because membership of an organization is usually partial and voluntary, while the membership of a nation is permanent and involuntary (T. Jackson, 1995). Jackson stated that national cultures differ mostly at the level of basic values while corporate cultures differ mostly at the level of the superficial practices: symbols, heroes, and rituals. Corporate cultures consist of practices rather than values, they are somewhat manageable: they can be managed by changing the practices. The values of employees cannot be changed by an employer, because they were acquired when the employees were children. However, sometimes an employer can activate values which employees were not allowed to show earlier, like a desire for initiative and creativity, by allowing practices which before were forbidden. Corporate culture is, in fact, a byproduct of national or societal culture (Buellens, Kreitner and Kinicki, 2001). The researchers state that while culture has an impact on organizational behavior through employees' customs and language, corporate culture have effect on individual's attitudes, values and expectations. Corporate cultures are hard to change and manage because these cultures have developed into general habits. The task to change these cultures belongs to top management. The top managers have choices of accepting and using existing culture or try to change it. If the top managers intend to change corporate culture, they have to receive sufficient support from key persons from different levels at the company. The process of changing corporate culture has to continually be monitored. The lack of culture awareness will be one of the key factors that made knowledge management fail (Jackson, 1995). 2.5.3 KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT AND THE ROLE OF CULTURE Knowledge management is a new branch of management for the company to gain competitive advantage by combining people, processes, information, and technology together. It focuses mainly on the management of change, uncertainty, and complexity (http://www.brint.com/km/). Companies can obtain knowledge by identifying, extracting and capturing the knowledge in order to utilize it effectively. Knowledge management caters to the critical issues of organizational adaptation, survival and competence in the face of increasingly discontinuous environmental change (Malhotra, 1997). Essentially, it embodies organizational processes that seek synergistic combination of data and information processing capacity of information technologies, and the creative and innovative capacity of human beings." There are two broad categories of knowledge management: the first is how to use information and technology, and the other focuses on how to manage people (Sveiby, 2001). The first approach which is the management of information considers knowledge as objects that can be managed by information management systems. The main goal of this approach is to increase access of information through improved methods of access and reuse of resources such as database, hypertext linking. The key solutions are new developments in IT. This approach will work by using technology to control information. The second approach is the management of people which considers knowledge as a process - a complex set of dynamic skills and know-how that is constantly changing. This approach focuses on assessing, changing and improving human individual skills and/or behavior. The goal of this approach is to make people share their knowledge. Newell et al also divide the approaches to manage knowledge into two ways. One is the ICT (Information and Communications Technology) -based approach or the cognitive model and another one is the ICT-led approach or the community model. These two approaches are quite similar to that of Sveiby discussed earlier. The following are characteristics of these two approaches by Newell et al (2002): The Characteristics of ICT- based approach - Knowledge is equal to objectively defined concepts and facts. - Knowledge can be codified and transferred through text: information systems play an important role. - Gains from Knowledge Management include utilization through the recycling of existing knowledge. - The main function of Knowledge Management is to codify and capture knowledge. - The critical success factor is technology. - The dominant metaphors are the human memory and the fitting pieces of knowledge put together to produce a bigger picture in predictable ways. The characteristics of ICT- led approach - Knowledge is socially created and based on experience. - Knowledge can be tacit and is transferred through interactive social networking processes. - Gains from Knowledge Management include discovery through the sharing of knowledge among different functional and/or cultural backgrounds. - The main function of Knowledge Management is to encourage people to share their knowledge through networking. - The critical success factor is trust and collaboration. - The dominant metaphors are the human community and the interaction to produce new knowledge in sometimes unpredictable ways. 2.5.4 CREATING A KNOWLEDGE SHARING CULTURE Knowledge Sharing Culture is about making knowledge sharing the norm. The company which wants to create a knowledge sharing culture needs to encourage its staff to work together more effectively, to collaborate and to share and to make organizational knowledge more productive. However, D. Gurteen comments on a few issues which need to be concerned: - Sharing knowledge is not just sharing information. - The purpose of knowledge sharing is to help a whole organization to reach its business goals. It is not sharing for only the benefit of one department. - Sharing knowledge is as significant as learning to make knowledge productive. - It is hard to change a culture. 2.5.5 Motivating and Rewarding Knowledge Sharing Direct and indirect rewards must be put in place to encourage knowledge sharing. Knowledge workers might be financially or admirably rewarded for contributing to knowledge work. However, it might not be true in all cases because it is not possible to make people share their knowledge by only rewarding them. Some employees are motivated not just money but more experiences and knowledge they gain during from their work. Hence there is the need to ensure that appropriate rewards systems are in place. Behaviour of knowledge sharing can be encouraged when the employees realize that knowledge-sharing is valuable for them. Sharing knowledge helps employee do their jobs more effectively. Moreover, it helps them keep their jobs; helps them in their personal development and career progression; rewards them for getting things done (Newell et al., 2002). 2.6 Summary This literature review has illustrated that there are a lot of perspectives from which knowledge management can be approached. It pointed out many factors which organizations confronts face as it attempt to implement an effective knowledge management at the workplace. It also highlights the effect of knowledge management on organizational efficiency. . -------------------------------------------- [ 2 ]. Newell, S. et al (2002). Managing Knowledge work. [ 3 ]. Gurteen, D. (1999, Febuary). Creating a Knowledge Sharing Culture.