Is_the_Idea_of_the_'Person'_Culturally_Constituted_

The idea of the ‘person’ being culturally constituted refers to the belief, which Mauss insisted on, that a person is inevitably shaped by their society and culture. Personhood is produced on the foundation of culture and the reason that differences exist between people is purely cultural in cause. Two examples, which highlight this, are the Tallensi people and the Aboriginal Australians. These two peoples share many similarities however their cultures are different and they hence have a different view of the definition of a person. This is clear through their use of totemism, naming, masks, kinship, economy, social organization, beliefs and values, hierarchies/ranking. There are many ideas of how personhood is constituted and the main anthropological idea, which is used to explain this is that of cultural construction. This differs from the notion of essentialism, which proposes that a culture consists of fixed traits that do not change or vary. It also differs from the idea of innateness, which presents personhood as something people are born with and does not transform throughout ones life. The idea of cultural construction, meanwhile, presents the anthropological belief that personhood is created by the culture it is surrounded by. What or who a person is, has a different definition in every culture, therefore the each person living in separate cultures shall have a different idea of what constitutes personhood. This definition of personhood can describe humanity and culture on every level, ‘the notion of the person in the Maussian sense is intrinsic to the very nature and structure of human society and human social behaviour everywhere’ (Fortes 1987:253). According to the idea of cultural construction, every part of society and humanity is shaped by culture including one’s idea of what constitutes in being a person. There are many different societies, which portray the concept of cultural constitution including the Tallensi people in their use of totemism. The Tallensi people’s culture has directly affected their view of what determines a person. The Tallensi view on personhood is very closely linked to the soul. Certain crocodiles are seen to contain the soul of the Tallensi’s past ancestors and are hence viewed as persons. These sacred crocodiles receive the same burial and funeral as humans, representing the Tallensi view of their being a person. However only certain crocodiles from certain special places are considered persons. These crocodiles are seen as the ‘incarnation of important clan ancestors’ (Fortes 1987:142) and to kill one of these crocodiles would be the same as killing a person. A crocodile that is not from this sacred place is not considered a person as they do not contain the soul of past ancestors and therefore can be killed and eaten. The crocodile is the Tallensi’s only totem except they also have specific views on other animals. In their myths and folk tales, animals are often given human qualities such as speaking. Dogs and cats in particular are regarded as partly human. Other animals such as lions, antelope and other game animals can be caught and hunted while cattle, goats and poultry are considered domestic animals without any qualification. (Fortes 1987:225) Animals and totems are very significant in portraying the Tallensi’s definition of a person. It is through their culture that the Tallensi have shaped this view on personhood. Aboriginal Australians also provide an example of how the idea of ‘person’ is culturally constituted. Aboriginals also believe that animals hold an important role in society and have their own totems. In aboriginal society every person has their own personal totem, which they cannot hunt or eat, but they can hunt and eat other peoples totems. It was not necessary that only animals were totems with totems also being part of the landscape such as hills, stars, tree and stones. Totem succession was also matrifillial. (Peterson 1972:15). According to the dreaming the spirits of the ancestors became part of the landscape and transformed into an animal. These animals became the totem and by dreaming about your totem you become linked with many other dreamings. Totem animals were highly regarded with fertility ceremonies being held in their honour and dances performed by those in the same totemic clan. Totems and animals were an important part in aboriginal life and provide an example of how culture can shape personhood. The Tallensi view on beliefs and values is also important in portraying how their personhood is shaped by culture. The Tallensi religion is shaped around the ancestral spirits who are also known as the ‘fathers’ or ‘forefathers’ (Morris 1994:124). However over recent years Christianity has been growing in Tallensi villages. These Churches are often situated next to traditional shrines, contrasting the difference in religions that still manage to coexist. The Tallensi believe that the supernatural control human existence, however in comparison to other African societies, the Tallensi do not often concern themselves with witchcraft and sorcery. They also give ghosts and bush spirits little significance. Tallensi religion is dictated by ancestral spirits who make their displeasure with the living known through causing calamity and even death among their descendants. Shrines are situated within most homes in an attempt to keep these spirits satisfied and happy with what their descendants are doing. The Tallensi belief in ancestral spirits and the supernatural is a direct result of their culture proving that the Tallensi are a people are culturally constituted. For Aboriginals the most important part of their culture was the Dreaming. The Dreaming is “complex and multidimensional” part of aboriginal society, which ‘recognizes the interdependence, and vitality of all parts of the cosmos’ (Bodley 2000:31). The dreaming provides an explanation for the origin of everything, cosmogony, and also an explanation for the order and meaning of the universe, cosmology. Through the dreaming every question about humanity and life is answered. The aboriginals also believe that ancestral spirits are a vital life force that is responsible for the continual and past creation of everything. These ancestral spirits established law and there was no afterlife. Some have described the dreaming as the aboriginal’s religion, however in reality it is far more complicated than that as it is multifaceted and a part of every aspect of aborigine’s lives. Aboriginals also performed rituals regularly in order to maintain the cosmic balance. This included seasonal burning which also helped the aboriginals maintain their environment. There are many theories as to how the aboriginals maintained a balance between resources and population and it is undoubted that ‘the aboriginal achievement is impressive’ (Bodley 2000:28) in their ability to survive as forages for such a long period of time. The dreaming was a key part of aboriginal culture and affected the aboriginal’s entire outlook on life. This is an example of how culture can constitute one’s idea of personhood. Another component of Tallensi culture, which makes it evident that the Tallensi’s understanding of ‘person’ is culturally constituted, is their method of kinship and ranking. In Tallensi society, in order for a man to become a person and become an ancestor after his death, he must have a son. Once a son is born it signifies both a man’s rise and decline into old age. The old are respected and cared for in Tallensi society and it is important that after his father’s death, a son must make sacrifices to him and his other ancestors. In their society, women are not viewed as persons and have no opportunity to become a person. Tallensi culture ‘gives little scope for individualism, and places very strong emphasis on collectivism and ascribed status.’ (Morris, 1994:130). Descent is patrilineal and residence is patrilocal. The clans that the Tallensi live in are strong and complex with marriage being polygamous. The people are ruled by representatives of the ancestors the Chiefs and Earth priests. These examples of how Tallensi kinship and society is shaped demonstrate how the Tallensi people are shaped by their culture. In aboriginal society, kinship and other aspects of inheritance and society are important in determining aboriginal culture and idea of personhood. In aboriginal society kinship is very complex. It orders the entire cosmos and provides each person with the capacity for personal independence. Lineage over time is not important to the aboriginal’s, as they only need their grandparents to link them to the dreaming. Kinship of totems also links people from other “countries” and also helps to decide and regulate marriage, as marriage is preferred to be in the opposite moiety. Both men and women are considered persons and are always considered a kinsman or kinswoman. It is believed that women performed infanticide to maintain “carrying capacity”, however it is unclear as to whether there was a preference for male or female children. (Bodley 2000:32) Aboriginal society and kinship is very complex and allows insight into how the aboriginal understanding of the person is culturally constituted. The Tallensi people and the Australian Aborigine’s share many similarities and many differences. Both societies respect animals however the Tallensi view some crocodiles as “persons” while the Aborigine’s view some animals and remnants of the dreaming and hence each person has a totem. Aboriginal and Tallensi beliefs also share some similarities, as they both believe in spirits however they differ with Tallensi revering the ancestral spirits and aboriginals following the dreaming. Their methods of kinship and society also differ with the Tallensi being patrilineal while aboriginals is determine mainly by totems. Despite their differences both societies provide examples of how personhood is culturally constituted. The idea and understanding of ‘person’ is culturally constituted. Each society has a separate culture and hence has a different understanding of personhood. Two examples of this are the Australian Aboriginals and the Tallensi. The two societies share many similarities and differences but ultimately see personhood differently because of their separate cultures. Sources Cited Bodley, J. 2000, Cultural Anthroplogy, Tribes, States and the Global System, California, London, Toronto : Mayfield Publishing Company Meyer, F. 1987, Religion, Morality and the Person: Essays on Tallensi Religion. New York: Cambridge University Press Morris, B. 1994. Tallensi, Anthropology of the self : the individual in cultural perspective. London : Pluto Press Peterson, N. 1972, Totemism Yesterday : Sentiment and Local Organisation Among the Australian Aborigines, Melbourne : Deakin University