Is_Muslim_Immigration_a_Threat_to_Europe_

| | |Is Muslim Immigration a Threat to Europe' | Table of Contents Introduction 1 1 Immigration Policy of EU Member-States Regarding the Muslim Migrants 15 1.1 Reasons of Muslim Immigration to Europe 1.2 Stages of Muslim Immigration in Historical Context 1.3 Establishment and Development of Migratory Policy Towards Muslims in Europe 2 European Democracy and Muslim Immigration 26 2.1 Challenges to European Identity: is Europe Under the Threat' 2.2 The Problems of Turkey Acceptance to EU: Difficulties of Implementation of Muslim Culture to European Identity 2.3 The Case of France: Can the Muslim Culture Really Become a Part of European Identity' 3 European Islam 36 3.1 The Problems of the Origins of the European Islam in Modern Europe 3.2 European Islam as an Emerging Phenomenon of the European Civilization' 3.3 The Efforts of European Islam to Integrate to European Society: the Case of Germany 4 Muslim Immigrants and European public opinion 69 4.1 Terrorist Attacks and Attributed of the European Society Towards the Muslim Immigrants. 4.2 Muslim European Identity: Is It Possible in EU (Formation of the European Public Opinion) 4.3 Muslim Institutions: Are They Obstacles for Integration' CONCLUSION 83 Abstract This Master’s thesis is intended to analyze the mounting problem of Muslim immigration in Europe. It is to focus on the main problems of policies of EU member-states to Muslim factor, difficulties and challenges that Muslim immigration carries, and the possibilities of integration of Muslims with the European community. The major issue of this thesis is to raise a question of possibility to establish the European Muslims as a part of the European society, or is it a still a question of Muslim immigrants inside the European states. INTRODUCTION The irreversible spread of Islam on the European continent has led to a significant change of ethnic and confessional structures and to the infringement of historically developed relative cultural homogeneity of European society. This process should be considered as a meeting of two civilizations – Islamic and Christian-secular with the long-term result of a formation of a new European identity. However, this process itself can contain a in the long term potential challenge. I will attempt to defend the hypothesis that Muslim immigration represents a potential threat for the old European democratic culture, since with the rise of immigration itself, a problem of “euroislamization” increased. The aim of this study is to carefully examine the characteristics of the integration process of Muslims into the Western European society and demonstrate the impact on the old European cultural, religious, and political spheres carried by this process, which creates at the same time a social-political imbalance, as well as understandable alert and fears among the original European population. First, the process of Muslim integration in the EU has already passed into a new stage. If at the primary stage the presence of Muslims was merely considered as an acceptance of this identity into a receiving society as a temporary phenomenon, nowadays a clear comprehension of the fact that Muslim immigrants and Islam make an integrated part of the European society takes place, and this, consequently, demands an appropriate analysis of this process within the frames of entire EU space. It is increasingly important to do it nowadays, - that is during the critical period of the popular open discussions taking place, for instance, on the somewhat painful question of the European Constitution’s text renewal, specifically on appropriateness of claiming Europe as a “Christian culture” (“Identity Crisis: Can European Civilization Survive Islamic Assaults'”, 2008), and hence, to impose Christian values throughout. A further question on finding possible methods and instruments of managing of the actual reasons of the Muslim immigration remains open as well. However, to make the decision on finding the compromise beneficial for both Europeans and Muslim newcomers for comfortable coexisting is possible: there should be a serious coordination between the European states’ traditions and a thorough analysis of the socio-cultural environment of the regions, - that is the Islamic “countries-donors” - the immigrants are constantly coming from. Secondly, the full complexity of the Muslim immigrants’ integration process is explained by not only a simple presence of ethno-cultural, but also a religious distance between the accepting environment and the immigrants themselves. The process of integration is a complex and a long-term one; it has got a structure and stages, and eventually demands participation of both sides. Hence, its efficacy depends on a level of participation of all institutions of civic society, authorities, and political parties, social and religious organizations. Additionally, an important condition for the success of this process is the maintenance of the constructive multidimensional dialogue with the accepting society, tolerance and readiness for compromises. The theoretical significance of the thesis is represented by the necessity of the study of the Islamic factor in the EU politics, which in its turn will provide further development of the research theory on the problem of Muslim integration in another confessional environment. Furthermore, the thesis results can eventually become a useful practical material for a possible political, social, economic and legal solution of the Muslim immigration problem (for example, creation of better economic conditions and infrastructure inside the Muslim states themselves with the help and investments from the European countries, since it explores and analyzes the origins, stages and outcomes Muslim immigration may have on the European identity. Moreover, the actuality and practical demand of the integration process research is valuable for Kazakhstani realities, since our society manages with its multinational and multi-confessional status and is still on its way of self-identification. Thus, it becomes obviously important to study the mutual relations of the indigenous European population and Muslim immigrants both on personal and institutional levels, where my thesis brings the light on the conditions and prospects of religious dialogue, the problem of the civil-law status of the immigrants, as well as their social, physical and cultural adaptation in the historically Christian countries with the secular systems. The study of the immigration situation that allows raising the problems of the immigrants’ adaptation in the socio-cultural environment facilitates the process of integration and formulates the principles and steps of mutual understanding. PROBLEM and SIGNIFICANCE The second half of the 20th century in Europe became an epoch of immigration that had entitled numerous problems, particularly connected to the process of Muslim integration into the accepting society, the adaptation of diverse national cultures to each other and the development of the common European identity. The powerful stream of immigrants from the Muslim countries to the states of Western Europe renders fundamental and ambiguous influence on the political, social and religious situation. In this context, it is necessary to state that the number of adherents of Islamic religion in the world from the last quarter of a century has sharply increased, making Islam the world’s fastest growing faith. According statistics, during the 1960s every fifth inhabitant of the planet confessed an Islamic tradition, whereas nowadays it is one out four (Saunders, 2007). Moreover, the youngest of the world religions confidently “masters” Europe and America in a numerical sense. Modern experts claim the fact that the ratio of the people professing Christianity has decreased and continues to decrease in Europe and Northern America, - and that, in its turn, causes an ambiguous reaction of the inhabitants of these states. Moreover, the sudden growth in the size and speed of migration inflow not only makes it complicated to control, conduct statistics, but establish the boundaries among the “natives” and the “aliens”, migrants and refugees (Chaves, 1994). The presence of Muslims in Europe inevitably affects the shape of the Old world and makes more actual a problem of Christian-Muslim dialogue, giving it some concrete ethnic political, social and economic parameters. However, the Islamic question in Europe is not exhausted by the problem of immigration. That is a far deeper problem revealed best in the comparison of the Christian and Muslim demography. Connected with the increased activity of the terrorist organizations working under the guise of Islam, the precise study of the mentality of Muslim diasporas ought to attract a special attention. Many highly advanced countries of Western Europe facing and experiencing terrorist acts increasingly tend to feel suspicious and anxious about the Muslim immigrant community, projecting their fear of violence on it. This leads to a rather painful and even xenophobic reaction of the original Europeans to the newcomers, which grows as the number of immigrants increase. In this context, a somewhat popular viewpoint, arguing that Europe is an asylum of Christianity and that the rest of the non-Christian populace residing in Europe are “aliens”, “conquerors” is quite widespread in some European countries. Thereby, the significance of this particular study is also stipulated by the need of researching the Muslim immigration to Europe and analyzing the problem of the European identity to find out the true reasons and explanations of certain violent activities, as well as to give a decent response to the speculations of the chauvinistic character. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK This thesis considers the vital problems of immigration through the theoretical framework that provides prove to the hypothesis. Depicting the theoretical framework of the thesis we can symbolically divide the scholars studying this problem into two groups, - that is the one generally supportive of the idea of the resistance and the threatening growth of the Islamic civilization worldwide, and another group providing a viewpoint of natural integration of Muslims in other societies that carries a neutral or even a positive result. Firstly, the extremely authoritative and fundamental work of S. Huntington The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order (1996), being a provocative and influential book, warns policymakers to be prepared for frictions, resistance (after the Cold War was over) and possible war of the Western culture and its antagonists in the East, represented by Chinese cultural block and Islamic civilization. After the events of 9/11, his controversial analysis provided an intellectual framework for many in the US and Europe, who viewed Muslims with heightened suspicion. Even though the work might be considered as a simplistic one and could justify the illegitimate western aggression against predominantly Muslim nations, especially in the Middle East, his hypothesis supports my own point of view that it is a real problem of civilizations; hence, I am convinced that the problem of the potential threat and problematic coexistence of Muslim immigrants and Europeans itself appeared a long time ago. The similar idea of Muslim immigration effects was also adopted and researched in the work of Ch. Caldwell, in the book Reflection on the Revolutions in Europe (2004), where he states that though for many years Europe and its cities were “hospitable” to the immigrants, Muslim immigration “changes the face of Europe”: “These Muslim immigrants are not so much enhancing European culture, as they are supplanting it. The products of an adversarial culture, these immigrants and their religion, Islam, are patiently conquering Europe’s cities, street by street” (p.40). Admitting this argument in general, I, however, disagree with the author on his contention that Muslims are a “pervasively intimidating” (p.40) presence in Europe and that cultural tension leads to violence. Certainly, the problem does exist, however, often the words “conquering” and “violence” are misused by mass media and shape among the wide audience a connection between the immigrants and terrorism. That is why this thesis also makes an attempt to demonstrate how public opinion in EU creates stereotypes, which, further create ethnic and immigration tension. Caldwell surely has company in his dire predictions. Another scholar, Bernard Lewis (1994), Princeton’s eminent scholar of Islam suggested that by the end of the 21st century “Europe will be a part of the Arabic west, of the Maghreb” (p.50). According to Lee Harris’s work The Suicide of Reason (2005) the West is singularly ill-equipped to fight radical Islam, a foe that resists normal methods of conflict resolution: negotiations, economic sanctions, or conventional armed confrontation. Harris argues that modern liberal societies, where political theories are based on the ideas of Enlightenment like tolerance and liberties, have grown unfamiliar to the nature of mass fanaticism, where intolerance can be a virtue. He contents that we think of history as an inevitable progress towards enlightenment and modernization, whereas the fanaticism can be a social pathology, a failure to modernize (Harris, 2005). Muslim values, norms and standards become a threat to Western ones, and the West “is uniquely vulnerable” (p.60). This argument might also frame in principal the hypothesis of this thesis, in which Europe becomes weak under the new wave of Islam. A political reporter Bassam Tibi (2008), in his article trying to decide on how much the European identity belongs to Europe nowadays, asks provocatively, "Is deference to Islam to be taken so far that one even has to follow the laws of the Sharia here in Europe'" (p.47). Moreover, he further urges that the pressure of Muslim immigration influences Europe to abandon it identity, “Europe can no longer stand still, either economically or culturally” (p.48). Yet the previous authors’ emphasis on fanaticism and radical perception of Islam as a new part of European society often is studied by scholars through another prism, - that is a possibly natural and eventually positive outcomes of the immigration and further integration of Muslims in European states. This second group of scholars argue against the previously discussed negativism of Muslim immigration, and do not see it as a so-called “conquest” of the West by Islamic culture. In the article of Prof. Ekmeleddin Ihsanoglu, Secretary General of the Organization of the Islamic Conference at the Centre for Dialogues, Europe and Islam: Shared History, Shared Identity (2008) he points out the long historical presence of Islamic culture in the European areas: from South Spain, Cyprus to Sicily to Mallorca to Rhodes to Malta and others. According to Ihsanoglu, the notion of “European identity” was never actual before the waves of Muslim immigrants took the region recently (p.3). The reason for the spread of “Islamophobia” in Europe he claims is not the threat of the immigration itself, but the revival after the collapse of the socialistic system of the “dangerous trend of micro-ethnic and nationalistic fervors at the peripheries of Europe” (p.3). Moreover, one can observe how many Muslims do not return to their old traditions. Many graduate from higher education and work in European Parliaments, trying to integrate into the European community. An example of the Somali-born Dutch feminist Ayaan Hirsi Ali, who in her book Infidel (2001) made criticism of Islam (a religion she was once faithful to) as a central argument. The significant achievement of the book is enforced by the clear difference the author makes between the mainstream Islam and militant or fundamentalist Islam, where her personal understanding problem is the teaching of Quran itself and the message of the absolute submission it preaches. Though the last statement of the author can raise many controversies in theological and cultural context, this thesis does not refer to Islam as the “dangerous” or peaceful religion, but as an idea of danger of Islam as a political ideology, cultural influence and the increasing amount of the followers of Islam in Europe, that can create certain social and political problems. Tariq Ramadan a profound spiritual leader of Muslims in Europe, in his work To be a European Muslim (2007), states that European Muslims should not become enclosed in their ghettos: born in or having moved to Europe, they need to get education and be actively involved into social and political life of European countries. Ramadan gives examples of how many of the immigrants and their children become European journalists, parliamentarians, officials and businesspeople. However, the context of this message is also straightforward: this is needed to spread the Islam (Ramadan). Undoubtedly, this openness could and may lead to the mixing of cultures from one side, but T. Ramadan responds the necessity to distinguish the historical Muslim culture from the entire religion, which, according to him has an infinite dimension. One can easily read between the lines: “I am a European, but I am a Muslim” (p.67). Once more, the message suggests that the integration of Muslims into the European society with the elements of western culture is a natural process, but this will necessarily bring an integration of the religion with it. Furthermore, Ramadan suggests that the integration of Muslim culture and active interaction of Muslim communities with the European society should proceed along with the spreading of Islamic religion, - and that is, in fact, a dual effect, which coincides with the hypothesis of the thesis that Muslims by interacting actively with the receiving society will change it. An interesting point of view is expressed in the work of the Kazakhstani political scientist Mourat Laumullin (2007), who pays a specific attention to a process of decrease of multiculturalism on Europe ever since the threat of Islamization appeared in Europe. He argues that although Muslim culture was not a new phenomenon for Europe, modern Islam as a cultural and social phenomenon in modern Europe questions the existence of the very idea of multiculturalism as a political-social construction (Laumullin). I agree with the author’s other argument, by which he tries to explain these trends, - that is the fact that the immigration of the Muslims to Europe cannot be compared with the successful immigration of many to the USA, because in Europe the Muslims had to “intrude” into a compact and culturally homogeneous society. My thesis, furthermore, states, that when this process of “intrusion” completes, the old European identity might be lost. The thesis does not agree with the statements of the widespread hostile and often false speculations or “islamophobia” taken place recently in Europe, patterns and images produced by mass media affecting and penetrating people’s distorted opinion and fears about the Muslim communities in the region. However, one should not downplay the actually existing problem of a certain threat the process of Muslim integration carries to the old European identity that alerts many scholars and indeed affects the political sphere (for example, the elections of parties in France in 2002 because of the fear the immigrants move forward the right-extremist National Front party, whereas after the elections, the massive demonstrations of the French Muslims brought the party down to the edges of political life). I tend to agree more with the first group of scholars, who are alarmed by the problem of the possible disintegration and even the break of the old European identity in the nearest future, though one should be careful with the existing fact that under the cover of the fear of the Muslim influence, many European nationalists and chauvinists are framing the incorrect public opinion of the citizens, using all possible means of mass media, and in fact, having a totally different aim, - and that is reflected in the thesis as well. However, if one does not take seriously the overwhelming increase of Muslim’s influence on political, social, economic and religious life, I believe that the “face” of old Europe is changing rapidly. And that is a very important issue indeed, since the new coming and the original (for example in the territory of former Yugoslavia) Muslims combined can bring a complete transformation of cultural, religious and socio-political structure of Europe in the 21st century. MEASUREMENT METHODOLOGY. The study of a complex and multifaceted process of the integration of Muslims in a different confessional and socio-cultural environment and its possible future impact requires an interdisciplinary approach of various fields: philosophy, social psychology, religious studies, ethnology, political science, sociology and migration policy, which allow a better understanding of the subject of study. This work relies on the study of works of the leading foreign, Russian and Kazakhstani scientists in this particular field. There are several types of analysis will be used in the research: content analysis, comparative analysis. The content analysis will include a broad spectrum of scholarly pieces based on monographs, scientific journals and newspaper articles. The comparative analysis will embrace several identical cases occurring throughout the globe, beyond the European continent, in order to juxtapose and correlate the immigration-related problems and challenges of other areas as well as to contrast the theories developed in regard to these particular cases. The database used in thesis contains the materials of sociological surveys and polls conducted in European Union, laws, regulatory legal documents that govern the migration and integration processes in European Union, constitutional documents and reports on the activities of the Islamic religious organizations operating in European Union, periodicals, materials, located on the Internet, and the recommendations of scientific-practical conferences. The main aim of this study is to examine the characteristics of the integration process of Muslims in European society by the example of the Western European countries. To achieve this goal the thesis sets the following tasks: - To examine and compare different methodologies that explain the reasons of Muslim immigration, as well as to choose the most relevant factors from methodologies to analyze the theories explaining the influence of the Muslim Immigration on the European identity; as well as to identify the causes, forms and types of the immigration processes of Muslims to Europe in order to analyze the current position and lifestyle of Muslim immigrants and their level of engagement with the receiving society ; - To give a comparative analysis of the real condition of the Muslim community and the types of relationships with states in Western European countries; - To depict the issue of Muslim immigration’s influence in Europe by the sources of mass media - in European Union; - To review the status of Islam’s infrastructure in European Union by studying the legal data, - that is the current rules and regulations put on the European immigrants, as well as by tracing the number of Muslim organizations, schools, mosques, etc.; - To reveal the characteristics and prospects of Islamic-Christian dialogue in European Union by analyzing the participation of Muslims in political parties, existing decrees and results of the conferences held on the issue in Europe. STRUCTURE OF THESIS The structure of the thesis is designed to prove the suggested hypothesis and to achieve the set tasks; thus, is divided into introductory part, four (4) chapters and conclusion. The first chapter “Immigration policy of EU member-states regarding the Muslim migrants” constitutes a historical review of Muslim immigration in Europe, focus on the legal norms of the policy towards the European Muslims, as well as the problem of an overflow of labor market by the migrating manpower, the causes of emergence of radical sentiments among the Muslim migrants. The aim of this chapter is to demonstrate that Muslim immigration is one of the problems, which inevitably invoke a separation of the European society, bringing the critical issues of social state structure up on the European agenda. To prove that the policy of European Union states have not been successful and efficient in neither stopping the immigration itself, nor in affecting the very process of the Muslim immigration’s influence on European society, this chapter tries to follow the legal data on the issue and demonstrate the weakness of the European legislature in the elaborating the mechanisms of preventing the conflict between the immigrants and the receiving society, because of lack of the mechanism (both legal and legislative) of the decisions and often a misleading portrayal of the problem. The second chapter “European Democracy and Muslim Immigration” attempts to answer the main question of whether the old European Identity is under a threat by revealing the barrier between two sides of the integration process – that is Muslim communities and the receiving society. Moreover, the chapter shows that the process of immigration to Europe itself shifted in the last fifty years from a simple re-location of Muslim people from north Africa to Europe, towards the problematic zones of the interaction of the recipients and the new-comers in the regional economic, social and political integration by examining the facts of violence, hostility and misunderstanding between the new-comers and the recipients, including the cases of chauvinistic moods. The third chapter “European Islam” attempts to discover a relatively new phenomena for Europe, that is a so-called “European Islam”, by tracing the history of its emergence and development, particular aspects of the activity of Muslim organizations and the representatives of “Euro-Islam”, Islamic extremism, the problems of Muslim immigrants in Europe. The Euro-Islamic theorists, such as T. Ramadan today present a new model of behavior of Muslim immigrants and their descendants, in which the “European Muslims” should actively participate in all spheres of European life by coupling into mixed families, presenting and adopting new (for the Europeans) traditions and holidays, creating their own Muslim organizations, movements and parties, and strengthening them in the European political arena. The fourth chapter “Muslim Immigrants and European public opinion” provides with the mass media strategy in this problem, sometimes formulating a wrong attitudes of the viewers towards the problem. Various mass-media projects and TV programs, as well as newspaper articles of doubtful factuality are discussed in the chapter to prove the misleading role of mass media in this question. Additionally, the chapter studies the decrees, rules and regulations of the European states toward Muslim immigrants, suggesting that if the constructive measures taken by policy-makers of the countries-members of the EU on mitigation of the situation with the immigrants\-Muslims will not change and remains as it is now, and if effective conditions for integration of the immigrants into the European validity will not be considered seriously and immediately, then it is difficult even to expect serious consequences of the Muslim immigration in Europe. The conclusion of the thesis reviews the obtained results of the thesis statements and suggests the proposals of the integration to become a mutual process and tolerance in this question is necessary both for Muslims and the European inhabitants, whose culture, religion and democratic values were developed for centuries. It suggests the ways of Muslim immigration problem resolutions, as well as makes the prognosis and recommendations on the further destiny. of multiculturalism in the European Union and suggests ways in which Europeans can improve relations with the Muslim community (and vice versa). CHAPTER 1: IMMIGRATION POLICY OF EU MEMBER-STATES REGARDING THE MUSLIM MIGRANTS This chapter contains the analysis of immigration policy of the states, the problem of an overflow of labor market by the migrating manpower, the causes of emergence of radical sentiments among the Muslim migrants. Migration itself is one of the problems, which inevitably involves division of society, putting the critical issues of social state structure on the agenda. As a rule, there are those who favor migration as a cheap labor force and those who fear that the best jobs will be occupied by migrants. Historically, those states that are members of EU used to be exporters, not the importers vast amounts of manpower into other parts of the globe. Here we may mention the immigration of the representatives of Northern European states into Latin America, the citizens of France and Great Britain into North America, multiple examples of immigration of the populace from metropolitan states into colonies and so on. Only in 40s-50s of the 20th century, Europe transformed into one of the most capacious importers of manpower in the world. Therefore, the situation that European Union is currently facing looks relatively unusual for its member-states. The statistics bear evidence that the number of incoming labor migrants and their accumulated amount is growing basically in all the EU member-states. Nevertheless, the migratory policy of the states is not marked to be “outstandingly” hospitable. Presently, it is exceptionally difficult for the migrants to legitimately enter the labor market of prosperous western countries. The official legal residency in EU member-states restricts the possibility of a legitimate employment for multiple categories of migrants. The following are the legal channels of how to officially get to Western Europe: - Family reunification; - Granting of refugee status (asylum seeker); - Repatriation; - For education purposes; - As a senior staff of transnational corporations and international organizations; - Through personal contacts; - Personal business enterprise; - Labor migration (based on legal international agreements); - Seasonal employment; - Trainings and via instructors’ invitations; - Quotas for exclusive specialties or types of activities (Tzapenko, 2005). However, majority of these channels do not officially ensure the right for employment, even if the migrant is allowed to reside in the state. Hence, the first four channels do not provide a possibility of instant legal access to labor market. The first three channels do not allow employing migrants according to their qualifications. Even if one of the family members obtains a work permit, it will not hold true for other members. Thus, the complaints of EU state authorities about the low level of employments among migrants primarily depends upon the policies of EU member-states, which forces the migrants to get involved in illegal labor activities, while there are job 600, 000 vacancies for Great Britain to fill (Iskandar, 2005). Portugal and Spain have initiated special programs, intending to attract migrants from Latin America, which are relatively close to them from the cultural, traditional, linguistic and historical standpoints, compared to those from Africa. Particular groups and generations of migrants are better integrated into labor market. This is specifically true about the qualified migrants from the Eastern Europe, Balkans and Asia, which are acknowledged good employees in European labor markets. Migrants from Balkan and East European states even have higher employment indexes then the local population. Simultaneously, as to the report, the migrants from the North Africa are less adaptable and prone to integration (this concerns unqualified workers and women in particular). The hierarchy of countries, according to their attractiveness for labor migrants, matches with the members of migrants currently working or temporarily subsisting there. The list is headed by Germany, France, Great Britain, which are followed by Italy, Spain and Switzerland. In countries where amnesty programs were conducted, the number of migrants has increased for several times. For instance, in Greece, France, Spain, Italy, Belgium, Portugal, Germany, Luxemburg and Great Britain, 2, 5 million people were legalized within the period of 1995-2002 (Quesne, 2001). One of the main features of Muslim migratory flows into EU is the fact that despite the elimination of borders among the EU member-states and creation of free zone for human resource mobility, native Europeans remain relatively immobile. The labor resources of EU are marked by extremely low mobility: the number of citizens working in another state within the EU space does not exceed 1, 5 percent, while the analogous indexes relating the third countries’ citizens residing and working within the integrated grouping are considerably higher (Munz, 2004). Immigration is becoming significantly important for EU. The situation is being exacerbated due to the fact that despite the continuous immobility of native labor resources in EU, the average level of unemployment in its member-states reaches 8 percent of the total able-bodied population. This also impacts upon the position of native population in regard to attracting foreign labor forces, which are often regarded as competitors. Thereupon, another considerable obstacle for immigration into EU is posed by the rough opposition of native population, developed toward any type of foreign labor force immigration, i.e. the population of European states stand out for the proper development course, under which the access into EU labor market would be maximally restricted for foreign migrants. However, the problems associated with migration into EU are necessary to be viewed in the light of a considerable decline of natality dynamics and increasing age of population. The peak is anticipated to be achieved in the first quarter of 21st century. For the last fifty years the life interval of European citizens dramatically increased (for 10 years) and will continue to rise further, while the average pensionable age in EU constitutes 60-65 years. The problem is becoming more complicated as a vast generation which was born in the end of 40s of XX century is about to enter the pensionable age in the near-term period. This might be an overwhelming burden for the social system of the state. The system of social welfare maintained in EU state-members was established in 1950-1960s, when the number of recipients was considerably lower. Thus, the social benefits stipulated at that particular stage of EU development, currently present another problem for the governments in budgeting. Simultaneously, these negative effects are accompanied by social challenges. Presently, the young generation of Europeans, is first of all oriented toward the achievement of professional success and social wellbeing, and postponing the creation of family to an indefinite future. Hence, the number of marriages is declining, whereas women often neglect family for the sake of career. The time spent for education in universities gets prolonged, as a great percents of students are from 27-30 years old (Vergaelen, 2006). As a result, the anticipated annual natality in Europe, during the next 25 years, will amount to 0,15%, whereas the main source of demographic growth will be the immigrants’ families. The situation formed in EU countries as Austria, Belgium, and Greece, where migration plays a focal role in stabilization of natality dynamics deserves a particular emphasis. More than 90 percent of population growth in Austria and Greece is taking place of international migration, while in Belgium this index composes 70 percent. Various sources prove that ranging from 11 to 17 million immigrants are presently residing in EU member-states, which constitutes 5 percent of the total population of EU. It is worthy to note that external immigration is dominating the internal in EU. Consequently, Europe presently transformed into the second largest importer of human resources after the US (Vassilyeva & Gorbachev, 2007). At the same time, it can be affirmed with confidence that the level of professional skills of the migrants is noticeably lower, in comparison to native inhabitants in most of the manpower importing states. The EU states basically produce the required number of highly qualified workers, experiencing deficit with unqualified manpower, whose place is reluctantly occupied by citizens of EU member-states. Hence, European countries are forced to import unqualified cheap labor resources in large quantities. Therefore, in majority of importing states, e.g. Germany and France, more then 70 % of immigrants (mainly Muslims) are used as unqualified employers in manufacturing, agriculture and service sectors, in contrast to only 40-45% of the native workers. Accordingly, excluding the Great Britain and Denmark, immigrants are scarcely represented in managerial section. It should be admitted that though many of the EU states have presently reoriented their policies, accepting qualified personnel in exchange for unqualified. Thus, from one side, France, Denmark, Netherlands, Germany and Austria attract basically unqualified employers, whereas Ireland, Finland, and Great Britain accept the highly qualified ones (Finland – from Central and East European states; Ireland – from US; Great Britain – ¾ of immigrants come from the developing countries) (Semenenko, 2004). The migratory policies remain at the competency of the national authorities at contemporary stage of EU development, which strenuously elaborate programs of attracting immigrants, as well as the comprehensive programs of cooperation with the states that traditionally export labor resources to Europe. A vivid example for this may serve the famous “Green-Card” program in Germany, a rapid employment procedure for specific categories of labor resources from the third countries in Great Britain or the agreement on attraction of labor force, signed by Spain and Morocco in April 2001. However, despite the topicality of the immigration issue among the EU states’ authorities and their efforts to put in conducting a relatively active migratory policy, there is still a certain vacuum observed in states’ control over the inflow of labor resources and their employment in EU member-states. Therefore, a need for coordinating efforts in this particular field on all-European level is acknowledged by many experts (Hein, 2008). Another noteworthy phenomenon, currently developing in EU, is the “black” labor market, the basis of which is composed largely of the illegal Muslim immigrants. It imposes a significant loss of revenue to the host country authorities, since no one is paying the lawfully prescribed taxes. The basis of this market is also consolidated by the legal immigrants with no working visa or legitimate working immigrants making money on the side, and so on. There is a big choice for the entrepreneurs in the “black” market. The EU member-states, however, successfully endorsed a compromise plan of action, in line with a sole course of counteraction against the illicit immigration, which includes a number of actions directed toward the identification and prevention of illegal migrants’ infiltration into EU space, including the transit option. It is crucial to note that the final document, named as “Seville Declaration”, is directed toward the limitation of illegal migration inflow. It is stipulated to toughen the measures against the transnational criminal groups that deal with smuggling and illegal transportation of people to Europe. It is also possible, under this declaration, to exert pressure on the states, which are not cooperating in impeding the illegal migration flow and departing their citizens back home (for instance: Morocco, Turkey, Albania, etc) (Hein, 2008). In accordance with this program, EU states are motivated to actively deport illegal migrants, while their voluntary return is considered to be a priority. Hence, the central idea here is revolving around the endeavor to integrate the proposed measures into a unified foreign policy and, primarily, into a security policy of European Union. In conclusion, it is crucial to note that the illegal migration is the imperative strategic priority of the EU foreign policy, primarily due to its expansion. The advantage of expansion is to be felt in the long-term, while the price for this is to be paid is due today. Even though the many of Europeans support the expansion of the union, some are frightened by a possibility of unemployment, which might be triggered by the growth of cheap East European manpower inflow. It is common lately to hear the claims about the need for imposing restrictions on immigration from Central and Eastern Europe, in spite the fact that free movement of citizens is accepted to be one of the fundamental principles of EU (Warnes, 2002). In the aftermath of the disintegration of the socialist block, the EU states endorsed a uniform (with a slight exception in regard to the former colonies) migratory policy in relation to the third countries. Toughening immigration regulation was dominating over integration as a principal element of the unified EU foreign policy since 1990s. One of the causes for toughening the migratory policy was the absence of political “excuses” for rejecting the acceptance of refugee-immigrants from communist regime states of Central and Eastern Europe. In the aftermath of the conflicts in Balkans, the inflow of refugees and asylum seekers have dramatically increased, which served a ground for such an abrupt political reorientation. At that moment every single state had its own specific migratory policy and criteria of acceptance, where some former colonial countries promoted relatively mild terms for the citizens of their ex-colonies (France, Spain, and Great Britain) in comparison to the citizens of other developing states. States with extensive maritime boundaries are especially troubled and it is they, who mostly express discontent toward the current EU policy of immigration control. For instance, Italy is forced to individually confront the huge inflow of illegitimate immigration and solve the problem of security of its maritime boundaries, which constitute in total 5 thousand miles. These states actively lobby for the idea of creating a European corps of boundary protection, which is to be financed from EU budget. However, the actual creation of such a corps is not foreseen in the nearest future, as despite the acknowledged significance of a unified immigration control, the possibility of creation such a service was seriously considered in Brussels only in May, 2002 (Rogers and Power, 2005). On a supranational level, the problems of immigration are regulated by bilateral treaties, by Shengen agreements as well as by separate chapters of Maastricht (1992) and Amsterdam treaties (Boutih, 2001). There are basically four principal domains, which regulate immigration and migration inside EU space, within the framework of contemporary EU policy: - Regulations, controlling the free movement of people within the framework of a “integrated market”; - Regulations, defining the norms of family reunification and labor migration from non- EU countries; - Control over the refuges; - Coordination of frontier policy (regarding the external boundaries, since the internal ones are abolished in Shengen zone). The general features of contemporary migratory policy within the EU framework are defined to be the following tendencies: - Abolishment of barriers impeding the internal migration inside EU for the citizens of EU and for the citizens of other developed countries; - Creation of barriers impeding the immigration and movement within EU for the citizens of the third, developing states (Rogers and Power, 2005). Despite the efforts undertaken toward the establishment of a unified migratory policy, European states still have to act alone against the massive illicit inflow of migrants (this is specifically true for the southern EU states and Germany), which often trigger conflicts and discontent in interstate relationships. For instance, the recent immigration “scandals” transformed into substantial antagonism in bilateral relations of France and Great Britain. The absence of a harmonized approach toward the issue of uncontrolled immigration generates frustration of coastal countries, like Italy and Spain, which drastically suffer from immigration inflow from Turkey and Maghreb, whereas Germany and Austria are facing mass immigration from the former Yugoslavia and Turkey (Rogers and Power, 2005). The issue of migratory policy harmonization, however, is continuously raised at EU forums in the recent years. The 1999 EU summit in Tampere (Finland), thus, was marked by the EU decision to jointly address the tightly interrelated issues of asylum granting and migration control, which demand a unified policy for the entire EU. Hence, in 2001, the Commission has proposed to introduce a temporary 5-year “probation” period, due to the upcoming expansion, regarding the free movement of labor force, for Central and East European states – candidates. At the same time, the probation period does not apply to Cyprus and Malta, as the structure of their economy very much identical to contemporary economies of EU member-states. States under probation could apply for the extension of period, if they were concerned about the probability of complexities in labor market. Nevertheless, the EU member-states mostly concentrate their efforts on frontier control, vastly ignoring a significant field of migratory policy – integration of immigrants (including the Muslim immigrants) into host country society. In spite of the declared unified foreign policy, EU member-states are alone in their endeavors, trying to find a relatively effective form of smooth integration of immigrants. Several types of integration of immigrants into host country’s community can by highlighted, depending on the ways of granting citizenship and social-judicial status that migrants obtain in the host country. The following are usually underlined: - Isolationist (immigrants are not converted into equal right citizens, according to the acting principle of “jus san-guin-is” – Germany); - Republican (immigrants are gradually integrated into community, on the basis of cultural assimilation and the principle of “jus soli” – France); - Multicultural method of immigrants’ integration (integration based upon the principle of preservation the national identity, keeping the citizenship of original home country – Sweden). The problem is particularly faced with integration of adult immigrants, since the process of children integration proceed considerably smoother, usually conducted through the compulsory educational facilities. As a rule, the governments of EU member-states usually run various programs in order to reach this particular objective, i.e. educational programs (teaching languages, required skills and qualifications); accommodation and work programs and loan programs. Some EU states totally enfranchise immigrants, allowing them to vote on local, and sometimes, on national elections. An interesting and effective method was introduced in Great Britain, which is based upon the principle of integration though army service. Since 1999, the government of the Great Britain has initiated an advertizing campaign, with an intention of attracting colored residents into the army service, where they presently compose 11% of the personnel. The Swedish government, like no other of its neighbors, realized the advantage of the immigrants’ native language in establishment of business enterprises abroad, in immigrants’ home country, and accordingly support in exporting goods and services. The effectiveness of such industrial integration scheme was approved several years ago and since then it is actively deployed. The statistics vividly show the dynamics of this scheme on 1995 indexes, when there were only 5 thousand foreign entrepreneurs in Sweden, compared to 1999, when this number increased up to 60 thousand (Boutih, 2001). Having discussed the problems of Muslim Immigration, we should also clearly identify the main reasons of Muslim immigration to Europe. Of course, in most of the cases the constant flow of Muslims to Europe is caused by economic and social factors: quick growth of population, poverty, etc. However, some experts suggest a more curious and less obvious reason as well: in Muslim states themselves there is often an oppression of extremism and fundamentalism, or imprisonment of “Brothers-Muslims” members in Saudi Arabia (of course, on political basis). These are considered to be the reasons of migration of the Muslim activists to Europe with more soft, liberal political climate (Khakim, 2006). However, it is necessary to add the economic development as the serious reason of the immigration as well. Another fact that can definitely increase the number of new-comers to Europe is often mentioned in press “European liberal Islam”. One of the expert notes that many relatives of the Muslim immigrants come to Europe today for the wish to have a more fair, just life with modern social laws, keeping their Muslim faith at the same time. The Muslims living already in Europe, are moving towards the creation of the liberal European Islam (Roy, 2008). However, the fair question should be asked: can liberal Islam be considered as a threat t6o Europe' The last years were also marked by the transition of EU to an integrated approach, elaborating active policies regarding the immigrants’ home countries, directed toward the enhancement of life standard, along with other activities aimed at suspending the current flow of immigration. Economic growth of these states, which in its turn can be invested by the European states could expect to considerably reduce the immigration dynamics, without a need for deployment tough counter-measures, which often negatively affect the interstate relations. Besides, the growth of these economies is advantageous for EU as it will open new markets, enable to develop natural and prepare fresh labor resources. Thus, the following may be finally concluded: in order to reach a relatively effective operation of the “common market”, EU member-states are to harmonize ones migratory policy and to reach a consensus in regard to an official concept of “foreigner”. Moreover, EU needs to input more power in controlling the movement of people throughout the territory of the Union, establish an integrated mechanism of response to immigration threats. Until now, there were only the systems of interstate agreements both, within the EU and beyond. The migratory policy also needs to be more balanced; fully utilizing all the possibilities availed by frontier control as well as by preventive policy and cooperation in regard to immigrants’ home states. In that case, there are higher chances that the migratory policy would be more effectively functioning, which will favorably influence the future economic and social development of EU and its role in the world community. Observing the immigration policies elaborated by EU member-states (noting that a lion share of immigrants is of Muslim confession) it can be concluded that there is a necessity to coordinate efforts in this regard on all-European level, in order to avoid the vacuum formation of state control over the inflow of labor resources and their employment and determine an integrated course on counteracting the illegal immigration, which mostly concerns Italy, Spain, Germany and Austria. The EU member-states’ authorities are also recommended to actively participate in development of immigration outflow states, in order to gain a regulating instruments and restrict and reduce the migratory flows of Muslims to Europe. CHAPTER 2: EUROPEAN DEMOCRACY AND MUSLIM IMMIGRATION Europe: Is it under a threat' Such dilemma is about to be faced, whenever an issue of regional integration will emerge. An identical case is observed with Europe, which in the last fifty years moves toward regional economic, social and political integration, involving multiple ethnicities in this process and additionally, the process of Americanism. However, is it a primary necessity to conceptualize what is European identity and if yes, then is the European identity under a threat of Islamic immigration' The European identity is a synthesis of national identities, which includes religion, culture, traditions, customs, languages, architecture and etc. Many of these features of national identity may and do acquire an all-European character. For instance, architecture, music, art and language is based on Latin alphabet. Hence, it is quite reasonable to use notions like European music, European painting, European architecture and European languages, as well as many political trends and ideologies (for example, socilalism) which eventually form the European identity itself. However, there is another aspect worth mentioning – and that is religion. Europe is known to be a Christian majority continent. Thus, religion as a spiritual value is one of the focal components of the European identity. The European identity played a central role in successful integration of the European Union. Hence, it can be surely inferred that European integration is based upon the European identity. However, along with the expansion of EU eastwards and reinforcement of the immigration process from the eastern states, a question often emerges, whether European democratic culture is about to be threatened or not. The issue of acceptance of the first ten states from the Eastern Europe has triggered at first an anxiety in the western part only in regard to the social factor of the probable problems, which basically encompassed the concern about the inflow of a cheap labor force from these areas. This, however, did not pose any threat to European identity, since all the accepted states and nations were of the European origins and of Christian confession. The only distinction, though, was in a lower living standard and political instability in comparison to the western parts. In terms of the role of the religious factor of the division of Catholic and Protestant Christianity, the question of any possible “threat” was not so urgent in the 20th century: First, because of the secularization of the European states, and second, even with the differences of these two, Christianity was the main uniting factor, remaining important even now. The first question has emerged later, when Turkey applied for the EU membership in 1963, motivating it by its geographical position and long-lasting neighborly relationships. Though, one must admit, that it is hard to define the character of such relationship, whether it had more of a positive or negative impact on Balkans being under the yoke of an Ottoman Empire for centuries. The consequences of this domination are evident even nowadays in the form of partially converted population of the peninsula into Islam. During the last forty years, Turkey is insistently “knocking” on the EU’s doors, and still meets difficulties today Their endeavor is also backed by the US, which positively recommends and promotes their candidacy into EU. Such an impertinent behavior of the US irritates the EU governments, which continuously reminds that it is the privilege of the EU member-states to recommend one or another state for joining the EU. European Community has posed a number of economic, political and legal requirements to be adopted by Turkey, in case it really intends to apply EU membership. Turkey, however, neatly fulfills all the EU requirements with the exception of the following two points: to acknowledge the mass depopulation of Armenians in 1915 by Turks as genocide and to recognize the Cypriot – Greek republic, which is, by the way, already enjoying the EU membership. So far, Turkey refuses to do that. Turkey and its population are willing to enter EU, but the question is whether Europe is ready for this or not' Evidently not, as it is shown by the results of a public-opinion poll conducted in a number of EU states, where native Europeans oppose the unification with Turkey. They substantiate their choice by the fear for the European identity, which is at stake. The amount of Muslim communities did not raise much of anxiety among the European aboriginals at first; however, a possibility of embracing a 70 + million Muslim populated Turkey triggers certain apprehension for European-Christian identity. What are the interests might Turkey have in Europe' First of all, the EU is viewed by Turkey as a huge consumer market for Turkish goods and services. Besides, Turkey anticipates adopting the latest technological innovations from EU. Moreover, Turkey is highly interested in the EU labor market, which is currently staffed by millions of Turkish employees. What about Turkey may attract the EU' Surely, as it was mentioned earlier, no vivid enthusiasm is observed in EU about the acceptance of Turkey into its content, though it should face the reality and consider the pursuit of Turkey to become the member of EU. Moreover, Turkey is one of the Muslim neighbors of EU, through which, historically, Europe drove trade with the East. Besides, Turkey is one of the consumers of the EU products; however, in spite it all European Union is not yearning for embracing Turkey. The second relevant question appears as following: In case if Turkey will be accepted into EU, will Turks be able to identify themselves as Europeans and develop the European consciousness' Muslims in Europe are specifically adapting into the European civilization, often rejecting the local rules and regulations. According to the statement of Valerie Giscard d’Estaing, Turkey should not be accepted into the EU (Petrov, 2008). His viewpoint has triggered considerable resonance and criticism both in Europe as well as in Turkey, though to a certain extend d’Estaing publicly expressed the hidden opinion of some social and political circles. Among almost all the EU member-states, only France openly expresses its indignation and speaks against the admission of Turkey into EU. Thus, the official visit of Turkish Prime – Minister, Mr. Erdogan and his meetings with French authorities were directed toward convincing the French government to reconsider their viewpoint regarding this issue. According to d’Estaing, Turkey is a candidacy promoted by US with a particular aim of undermining the “unfriendly” EU from within (Petrov). The opponents of Turkish admission into EU substantiate their position by the fact that Turkey is predominantly eastern, not a European state, with its capital situated in Asia. They believe that Turkey is a very big Muslim country and the Christian Europe will not be able to cope with it. There are two opposing positions colliding over the issue of Turkish admission into EU: is the European Union a Christian world, an economic union, or above all, a new type of government' If it is a Christian community then Turkey does not match the requirements, but if it is an economic union then Turkey deserves to put a claim for its membership. The integration problem of Muslim immigrants is directly interconnected with admission of Turkey into EU. The following are the obstacles defined to be impeding the admission of Turkey into EU: mistrust about the durability of democratic institutions, unsolved Kurdish issue, territorial disputes with Greece and partial occupation of the northern Cyprus by Turkish troops. However, hypothetically, a primarily anticipated threat is believed to be demographic growth in Turkey; a Muslim country with high birth rates may conquer a dominating position, if admitted to EU. The anxiety about the European identity emerges not only due to a possible admission of Turkey into EU, but also because of the massive immigration to Europe from the former African and Arab colonial states, which are all predominantly Muslim. In France, the Muslim community amounts up to 10 percent of the total population, which has developed in the aftermath of two immigration waves. The first wave took over soon after the eclipse of the French colonial system, in 50-60s of the 20th century. Almost all the immigrants coming with this wave were granted with French citizenship. The second wave of Muslim immigration is presently occurring, vastly based upon illegal migration (Vergaelen, 2006). Muslim immigrants from Northern Africa and south Sub-Saharan Africa commonly inhabit the suburbs of French metropolitan areas, and industrial centers. Lacking higher education and proper qualifications and skills, the immigrants are forced to undertake the low-paid dirty jobs. They have no proper shelter and access to basic goods. Living usually in densely populated groups inevitably transforms the area into a ghetto. Thus, the issues of social accommodation of immigrants appear to be the priority. Besides, the issue of assimilation of Muslim immigrants with the titular nation of France remains complicated. The French legislation clearly defines that whoever granted with French citizenship is to be considered as French, e.g. those who legally belong to France are basically the French. Thus, anyone intending to obtain French citizenship should clearly understand this. However, many of Muslim immigrants do not understand, or do not want to understand this, and hence, demand for special privileges to be issued within the French legislation. As, for instance, to introduce the law of Shari’a, though, in a private life, which is in any case unacceptable for France. France is a state with an ancient democratic tradition, which was the first in human history pursuing the principles of equality, fraternity, freedom and human rights (Gauchet, 1998). The church in this country is strictly divided from state. All this in combination represent the incontestable value of French Republic that shall never be deviated from, for it is the bearing of the Great French Revolution of the end XVIII century. The recent social disobediences held in France by the Arab and African youth were most probably triggered by social despondency, unemployment, low salary, improper living conditions and etc. Thus, the EU authorities proposed 50 million euro for rehabilitation of French “banlieues”, which are home for thousands of Muslim immigrants, residing in France. But following all these facts, logically, a question emerges: does the growing Muslim immigration threaten the European identity' Definitely, there is a certain degree of discrimination often expressed by the representatives of titular nation in respect to this part of French population, which is unacceptable for a democratic state. There are multiple motives for the immigrants to demonstrate their discontent; however, the major reason would still be the social despondency. It is crucial to note that European identity is not a stagnant union. It permanently modifies and enriches through a dialogue of multiple cultures. For thousands of years Europe has experienced inflows of populace from the east, which it successfully transformed and so it will be now: European identity will change. The positive look at the immigration problem can note, that an American model of social development might also grow roots in EU, allowing the expatriates of various nations to develop a common multicultural dialogue. Probably, then, the proponents say, the whole population of the EU will identify itself as “European”, though having various of ethnic and national roots, calling this as a new European identity. However, today the views and mottoes in Europe are more pessimistic about the Muslim immigration, and there is a significant basis for this pessimism. Europe, as some experts suggest, does not promote or encourage nationalism, though it fears this unpredictable phenomenon (Gauchet, 1998). The European Union, as a supra-ethnic community with a possibly new identity, will inevitably collide with multiple obstacles. The unification and personal cultural anonymity impels people to search for an identity, referring to the past, hoping to find the tracks of spiritual fraternity, which contemporary society refuses to establish. Aspiration for a collective determination often triggers an acute growth of various collectivist organizations, totalitarian sects, ultra-leftist movements, neo-fascists, anti-globalists and other radically oriented unions. Nationalism also became an ideology, promoting self- identification of individual in a society and it obviously grows, whenever there is a threat to ethno-confessional identity. The foundation of the contemporary unified Europe is built of the values, which are intangible and often indefinitely determined, as: commitment to “western values and principles”, including the political values - democracy and human rights; economic values – liberal market economy and freedom of entrepreneurship; social values – principles of social welfare and unity as well as the absence of war and warfare possibilities among the European states. The view of Europe as a value-based community is reflected in official documents of EU, in the speeches of its leaders and rhetoric of European politics. Dr. Richardson – the former head of the EU delegation to UN, in his speech from 25 September 2002, defined five values that all EU actions are based upon: nomocracy (law and order), democratic process and human rights, liberal market economy as a source economic prosperity, the principle of solidarity among the society members and respectfulness toward personal liberty and the principle of sustainable development (“Europe: The State of Public Opinion”). There is a common perception of Europe as a unified cultural, political and social community; however, such insight underlines the unifying values, omitting the diversity of political, linguistic, ethno-cultural, social, confessional and other particularities of the states and regions of European continent, as well as the imperfection or the diversity of authentic implementation of value reference points in political and social life. Public opinion polls, conducted on a regular basis by EU agency and publicized under the title “Euro-barometer”, show the prevalence of national identity. The level of national pride constitutes identically high percent, both in “old” and “new” state of EU – 85%. A sense of belonging to a particular state predominates (90%) over the sense of belonging to EU (10%) in general (“The future of Europe: Special Euro barometer,” 2006). Thus, Europe is a national community has not yet determined its identity, and its form of democracy. Traditionally in Europe, the rights of national minorities are declared and secured by the authorities, fixed by official documents, the legal base of which rest upon the UN resolutions. However, even the Copenhagen “framework convention on the rights of national minorities” and “European charter of regional languages or minorities’ languages” of the European Council is not binding for all the states. They are signed, but not yet ratified both by some of the new EU member-states as Latvia and Estonia, as well as by the old ones, like France. The whole 20th century was rich with events, often triggered by the endeavor of minorities for self-determination, which appeared to be the most frequent cause of the wide-scale interstate and intrastate conflicts. Relationship with national minorities is the internal affair of a nation- state, though, due to growing integration and the dynamics of demographic changes, coordinated actions are needed in this regard. It should be noted that the EU basically lacks such specifically coordinated policies. A theoretical problem of this issue is how to draw a separating line between the state-founding nation and national minorities. A German scholar, Altermatt, argues that “no one is able to objectively define, why, for example, Letts, Lithuanians and Estonians are nations, while Chechens, Basques and Rhaeto-Romans are only national minorities. Each definition of a concept made in regard to nations and minorities reflects relevant political correlation of forces. Those who were “minority” yesterday tomorrow may become a “nation” and vice versa”. In some countries, particularly in Netherlands and Great Britain, a similar viewpoint has brought to life a comprehensive multiculturalism (Altermatt, 2000). New exceptions to the Western European rules emerged within the time frame of a period between the two world wars, one of which is an uncertainly defined west European multiculturalism, which consisted of an exclusive politico-religious diversity of civilizations that historically evolved from a mixture of mobilization of public masses and hierarchical subordination of weakened states. The term “multiculturalism” entered the European political and academic lexicon in the mid 1980s, but it was not an official political expression. One of the enduring example of similar west-European multicultural society are the Netherlands, which once included also Belgium and Austrian republic since the collapse of the empire till the consolidation of Austrian fascism in the beginning of 1930s. A Dutch concept of “minorities’ policy”, assigned to support major immigrant groups, including the Muslim, also is an active multicultural policy, though under a different title (ibid ). However, some of the scholars of modernity predict the end of the European multiculturalism in the nearest future. One of the elements that threaten this concept and the European identity they view Islamic migration (Laumullin, 2007), suggesting, the future destiny of multiculturalism in EU depends on how will cope together the secular and Christian values of modern Europe with the hardly assimilating Muslim community. “In fact, - as Laumullin continues,- Islam as a cultural and social phenomenon in Europe today questions the very existence of multi-culturalism as a socio-political construction. This threatens the further development of Europe as seriously ever form the times Battle of Lepanto and the Turkish to Vienna in the 16th century” (p.68). One of the main issues in considering the threat of Muslim immigration to Europe is the question of values. Here, the question of religious values plays an important role, but is not always correctly understood, unfortunately. Islam and its followers “framed” into the Christian Europe often raises a question of “jihad” – the issue so often included into discussions about immigration, religious extremism and terrorism of nowadays. Indeed, jihad takes one of the central places in Muslim religion. But if many Muslims interpret jihad (and Quran as one of he most variously interpreted book) in various ways, - that is less aggressive one and not as a straightforward claim to take a weapon against non-Muslims way, than there are many others, whom one can definitely call as “jihadists”. As western scholars suggest, there are two groups of “jihadists” – that is the “outsiders” and “insiders” (Laumullin, 2007). The first ones are mostly refugees from Islamic countries (often imams, criminals) convicted in their homelands but having connections with the extremist organizations back home. The insiders are the second and third waive of immigrants in Europe, often students and often unemployed, often called as “angry Muslims” in the western press. But the most dangerous insider type is the “young university graduate (for example, O. Khiyam in London case). This, according to the study is type of a young man that should have integrated into the European society, but definitely demonstrates a huge gap between the European and alien culture (Laumullin, 2007). The complexity of ethno-cultural problems is to be mounting with the lapse of time as the diasporas discontinued their assimilation and gradually transform into restricted enclaves. The ethno-cultural problems more often appear on the agenda of European Union, demanding an integrated and targeted resolution. There is a high probability that nationalism and religious fundamentalism based on the increased violence may appear to be more threatening to European democracy than radical socialism and communism used to be. Many scholars note the recent radicalization of European Muslim youth, often calling it literally as a “threat” (Monique). The future of EU still causes certain concern due to a great historical, traditional and cultural dissimilarity of the states that are presently gathered under its framework. An understanding of the importance of national sentiments of the EU citizens is depicted in the text of the European Constitutional Agreement project, endorsed for consideration in July 2003. The Preamble of the agreement says that the basis of European unity is built on the “values of humanism, equality, liberty, respect for individual’s political and religious creed and inalienable rights, respect for law”, underlining the significance of preserving the “openness of the continent to culture, knowledge and social progress”. It also specifically highlights the necessity to preserve the proud for one’s national identity and history. The formation of EU identity is an endeavor to combine without a contradistinctions and collateral subordination the national and supranational identity of EU citizens, highlighting the crucial integrating elements of identities. The further development and future of EU basically depends on how successful this particular and extremely important problem will be resolved. Concluding this chapter, it is worthy to note that the significance of religion in formation of any identity is hard to undervalue. The complication of interreligious relations in Europe is rooted in a collision of the two greatest religions with a millennial history. Knowledge of foreign languages by the new-comers is also of a great importance for the establishment of intercultural dialogue, a key element of which is religion. It can be asserted that the future of Europe also depends on how prosperous will be the activity of interreligious institutions, and how tolerantly will the representatives of the two worlds co-exist. CHAPTER 3: EUROPEAN ISLAM This chapter contains an attempt to concentrate on a relatively new phenomenon for Europe as European Islam: its emergence and development in European countries, particular aspects of activity of Muslim organizations and the representatives of the “Euro-Islam”; Islamic extremism, the problems of Muslim immigrants in Europe and the ways of its integrating here. The inflow of labor force is an important source of the developed world manpower resources. The stable dynamics of immigration evidences that it has became an autonomous, independent of economic conditions, process. The complexities of immigration are, first of all, associated with the inflow of millions of Muslim immigrants into developed states. They set up enclaves in big European megalopolises, consolidated by Islamic religious principles, despite its various persuasions, and enacted norms of behavior. “The biggest Muslim community exists in France: from 5 to 7 million (its about 10% from the whole population), Islam became here the second religion after Catholic church. A numerous communities of Islam were formed in Germany (4 mln.), Great Britain (1,7, mln.), Italy (1 mln.) and Holland (1 mln.) (Europeization of Islam or Islamization of Europe' Alexander Krylov, Blagovest-Info, 09.03.2007). Islam has become the second of the most numerous religions in European continent. The total amount of Muslim adherents in Europe exceeds the overall population of Finland, Denmark and Ireland, composing 15-20 millions at a rough estimation. A relatively sizable share of Muslims is concentrated in France, Holland, Germany and Austria. A great portion of new migrants consider Islam not only as a religion, but also as system of values incompatible with western equivalents) (Iskandar, From Paris to Cairo, 2005). Such a contentious perception of one’s culture in a foreign world sustains the existence of restricted communities, which fall out of social and legal space of the host country (though formally regarded as “ordinary” citizens). Western society contemporarily perceives Islam as a “dissimilar”, specifically from the European, system of legal norms, ethnic guidelines and cultural practices. A regulated and restricted lifestyle, veiled in religious shapes, unusual behavioral models and an unfamiliar world-view erect the wall of misunderstanding and alienation among the “majority” and “dissimilar” – Muslim population in immigration receiving countries, specifically, in a highly secularized Europe. This is about European negative reaction to “alien” civilization, for example gypsies, who have been known for ages but still are accepted by Europeans as representatives of strange and “other” culture. Hence, unsurprisingly, for instance, a negative perception of gypsies (Roma) in Europe still remains stable, whereas the signs are gradually disappearing as a central factor of discrimination between “natives” and “aliens”. Mainly the problems of “aliens” has become the problem of “strange” culture. In this case, the diffusion of values and spiritual guidelines of host countries often obstruct the interaction with differentiating cultural groups. Universal values do not create an adequately solid basis for social solidarity of a nation-based community and for implementation of a long-term development project. With the upcoming information community, the habitual guidelines, along with identity sustaining social and cultural mechanisms, fundamentally change. The distinguishing features of an individual identity are dynamism, amorphism and instability. As a result, an atomized society is reproduced, which makes it problematic to merge it into the content of differentiating cultural groups, which obtain a firm set of values. Overcoming social alienation appears to be a focal term in settling the intercultural dialogue. The growing number of Muslims in Europe is a spontaneous, and to a certain extent, inevitable process, which has initiated in 40-50s of the 20th century after the decolonization of Asian and African states. Since then the total number of Muslim population in Europe increased 50 times more. According to some forecasts, by 2040, Muslims will constitute one third of European population (Iskandar, From Paris to Cairo, 2005). Currently, as to various sources, there are 15-24 million of Muslims living in Europe. A vast share of French Muslims (5-7 millions) are expatriates of Arabian Maghreb (Algeria, Tunisia, and Morocco). Two third of the German, Dutch, Austrian and Danish Muslims (5-6 millions) are of Turkish emigrants. 69% of British Muslims (3-4 millions) are from British India (Pakistan and Bangladesh) (Ramadan, To Be a European Muslim, 2001). European Islam is relatively a new phenomenon to European society, though a serious one. The future of Europe is presently impossible to be foreseen without consideration of this particular factor. And if to consider the traditional impact of Europe of a global scale, it is to admit that Euro-Islam will directly or indirectly influence the pace of the overall global civilization. The term “Euro-Islam” emerged in 1990s, when Samuel Huntington in his book “the Clash of Civilizations”, argued that Europe and Islam are the two antipodes, two hostile antagonistic civilizations (Huntington, “The Clashes of Civilizations”, 1991). Tariq Ramadan is considered to be the ideologist of the Euro-Islam and the spiritual leader of European Muslims. His autobiography is unique and equally typical for European Muslims. He was born in Geneva (Switzerland) in 1962, in a large family of an Egyptian emigrant. Tariq is the grandson of the well-known Hasan Al-Bann, the founder of “The Muslim Brothers” in Egypt, who was assassinated in 1949 (Ramadan, To Be a European Muslim, 2001). Some regard the adherents of this organization to fundamentalists, while others consider them as the reformers (Queshe, Islam and Europe: a changing faith// Time, 2001). However, it should be taken into account that the Muslims Brothers prepared the ground for the Islamic Renaissance, affecting the Islamic Revolution in Iran (1979). It is the Muslim Brothers, which were the first to argue that the European ideas of democracy and parliamentarianism (Arabian- Egyptian term “Jumhuriya”) in some ways were corresponding to the Islamic spirit. The French language has become the mother tongue for Tariq, which besides obtained secular education. For a certain period of time, the future ideologist of the Euro-Islam studied the works of Friedrich Nietzsche and taught at lyceums, but at one point he returned to Egypt, to the motherland of his ancestors and became what he is now. Since 1990s he preaches Islam in the biggest cities of the West, makes statements on television and writes books about Islam. Tariq has won an immense prestige among the young generation of European Muslims. His central thesis revolves around the idea that the European Muslim should not be locked in their ghettos. Muslims born in Europe have to obtain European education and actively participate in European socio-political life, in order to promote the dissemination of Islamic values. Doubtlessly, such transparency might lead to cultural assimilation; however, Tariq Ramadan argues that it is crucial to distinguish the historical national culture from the perpetual religion. “The Arabian culture is not yet the culture of Islam…I am European, but at the same time, I am a Muslim”, he says (Ramadan, To Be a European Muslim, 2001). Tariq considers that ethnicity is a historical community united by a sole identity. The central focus of his work is the identification and investigation of Islamic values and traditions, and their role in contemporary western world. A Swiss citizen, professor of philosophy at the College of Geneva and the professor of Islamic studies at Fryeburg University (Germany), Tariq Ramadan always calls upon to Muslims to engage in an active learn of the western culture instead of primarily to develop hostility toward it. Besides, he specifically underlines that learning does not mean “betrayal” of the traditions and values of the Muslim culture. Ramadan has written more then twenty books, devoted to severely problematic issues of the new interpretations of the Prophet Muhammad’s doctrine, the reforms in Islam and the relationships of the Islamic world with the western countries. He points out that Muslim population of Europe could belong to any identity but they are united by values of Islam which is supranational phenomenon. Furthermore, one could say that the Euro Muslim identification marks the birth of a new European phenomenon: a culture founded on Muslim values trying to become an integral part of society. A for consequences of this problem they seem to be unclear. While researching the Muslim factor in Europe, it is crucial to note the pace of development of Islam in France, where a so-called “popular” or “traditional” Islam is more common. Usually the old and middle age groups are adherent to it, which are long-residing in France. Some of them and the vast majority of their children obtain the French citizenship. Decisively rejecting the idea of returning back to their home countries, these people started to more openly demonstrate their adherence to Muslim culture, requesting from the government to open madrasseh and prayer premises. They are prone to congregational lifestyle, which is aimed at mutual assistance as well as the transfer of language, culture and religious values to the younger generations. In France, all the problems interconnected with integration of immigrants from the ex-French colonies are considered within the context of merging them into the political nation. So far the state did not come up with a special-purpose program directed at overcoming the social alienation or restraining the diverse radical manifestations of its citizens. The state committee on integration and the state council of integration, established in 1989, practically did not involve the representatives of minorities they are supposed to work with. Until presently, there is no single representative of the multimillion Muslim population. There is no statistical data on ethnic and religious adherence of the population, which is considered to be impeding the implementation of an integration strategy. Accordingly, the problems of social marginalization, emerging as a result of the failure of assimilation and integration strategies, are kept undisclosed. Hence, the 2005 wave of social disobedience may be interpreted as a way to be “heard” and to show solidarity with all those, who appeared to be socially ghettoized. Germany, until recently, used to orient its migratory policy and integration programs around the model of the “ethnic nation”, which applies only to the ethnic Germans that have arrived from abroad to reside in on the permanent basis. Being a country of mass labor migration, Germany admitted only guest workers from Turkey, which were expected to return back home afterwards. (Tereschenko, Problema XXI veka-immigratzia – nadezhda Germanii, 2005). As in Netherlands, this expectation was not justified; however, initially no multicultural practices were introduced. Instead a restrictive legislation on citizenship was endorsed that has vastly leaned upon the anti-immigration rhetoric of the leading political forces, which reflected the common mood of public masses. Considerable reform took place in 1990s, when Germany acknowledged itself as an “immigrant country,” whereas the regulation of labor migration became a part of integration policy. New quotas were introduced in order to attract the highly qualified specialists from abroad (Tereschenko, Problema XXI veka-immigratzia – nadezhda Germanii, 2005). Another noteworthy factor affecting the labor market resources in Germany is natural demographic decline. Indeed, it should be considered that the inflow of immigrants partially compensates the loss, and generally, only middle aged and young people immigrate. Thus, in combination with religious, traditional and mentality features a relatively high birthrate among immigrants results. Though, if to hypothetically consider the compensation of fertility deficit by immigration, then the dynamics should permanently increase and by 2050 reach 0.5 million people per year (Rogers, Power A. 2005: the year of numbers// http, 2007). Besides, the total compensation of fertility deficit at the expense of newcomers, the share of immigrants and their descendants will exceed half of the total number of population in many regions of Germany. (Plan Integrazii musulman v obschestvo Germanii, 2008). Presently, the contrast of low birthrates among the native population with the high fertility rate of immigrants still does not balance the progressively ascending birthrate in Germany. Consequently, if the current tendencies will be maintained, each following generation coming to working, childbearing and reproductive age will be less and less in number. (Plan integrazii musulman v obschestvo Germanii, 2008). Recently, an unprecedented case has happened in Germany, when a female judge rejected the plea of a 26-years-old Muslim woman, who asked the court for permission to divorce with her husband – the Muslim man (also a Moroccan) that refuses to divorce, regularly beating her and making her life intolerable and also threatening to kill her. The German female judge provided that Koran, according to which Muslims are living, does allow husbands to beat their wives, and hence, rejected to protect the woman, which according to German laws is to be under state protection. The court provision deprived the woman of Moroccan origins and the mother of two children to apply for a divorce. It literally divided the German society, when the detail of this trial became publicized. This case was commented by politicians and lawyers, ordinary citizens and journalists. All together, they have reached a common opinion, which, perhaps, best of all was expressed by the leader of the “Green” party – Claudia Rott, in her interview for Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, where she declared in this regard: “This is absolutely incomprehensible and unacceptable verdict. Any church in Germany is divided from the state and the secular law dominates over the ecclesiastical ones” (Plan integrazii musulman v obschestvo Germanii, 2008). It is worthy to note that the 26 year old resident of Frankfurt professes Islam and married her fellow countryman back in Morocco and according to Shariah rules. The marriage, concluded abroad was officially acknowledged in Germany and hence, the judge considered it lawful to reject the complainant, by referring to Koran rules and ignoring the fact that her husband refuses to divorce as it will result in losing the German residence permit, continuing beating his wife and threatening to murder her. Such logic sounded odd to German mass-media because it justifies the verdict of the secular court based on religious law, and contradicts the German legislation. As it was commented in Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung newspaper, according to this logic, the cases of women assault and battery may be ignored, if the husbands are Muslim. Once such a precedent takes place, it might develop further, resulting in removing the Muslim population from German legislation enforcement zone and leaving them up to Sharia, which they revere and follow. Fortunately, the administrative court of Frankfurt disagreed with such state of affairs and opportunely intervened. Ultimately, the victimized and threatened woman got a divorce; her husband was dealt by police, while the judge that has awarded such an odd sentence had to take off the judge’s gown. (Plan integrazii musulman v obschestvo Germanii, 2008) A survey, conducted by “STERN” magazine, among the German Muslims revealed that the absolute majority of them – 70%, assume that the German laws predominate over the laws of Sharia, (Europe: The State of Public Opinion, 2008), which is right and deserves to be saluted. However, the remaining 30%, which does not share the common view, cause concern, since more than a half of them are young people aging up to 35 years old. At the same time, a “modernized” and secular Islam exists, which particularly attracts the youth from comparatively secure circles and acquires more of a cultural, rather then a cultic value. This particular variety is attributed to the children of immigrants, i.e. those who were born and educated in France. Basically, their perception accords with the logic of the youth of non-immigrant origins, when the demonstration of collective adherence to a specific culture (in our case Islamic) is a result of a free choice, and thus, the manifestation of individuality and independence. This is the radial distinction from the previous nature of community adherence, based on traditions. Based on this, in May 2003, the “Movement of Secular Muslims of France” was established, which protects the conception of a “moderate Islam”, appropriate for the contemporary epoch and not contradicting the republican values, promoting respectful convergence with other religions, rejecting the tendency of binding lifestyle and mentality to Muslims. There is a fundamentalistic Islam, which uses the religious dogma to fulfill political objective. Within the framework of the last-mentioned category, three specific varieties can be distinguished: firstly, the networks of radical activists, marginal and generally illegally operating in collaboration with foreign organizations. Secondly, militant Islam is less accepted, existing in a form of small closed circles, functioning in local mosques under the guidance of the self- proclaimed leaders – integrists. Finally, as a matter of fact, the neo-fundamentalism, which is relatively well-known and ambitious, aimed at unifying all the existing Islamic associations and units under a sole “Muslim community” that is supposed to become the focal operating institution within the interrelation with state. Attempting to form an identity, based on a single criterion of adherence to Islam, rejecting the western values and resisting assimilation is typical for this specific movement. The establishment of a Muslim “middle class” and a rapid development of multiple organizations, propagating a secular, modernized Islam are considered to be evidencing that despite the widespread public estimations, the integration mechanisms are quite effective. Presently, considering the size and geography of spreading, Muslim organizations can be divided into 1) minor organizations of local importance with mono-ethnic membership and 2) national organizations (ethnically diverse, obtaining formal relations with governmental structures). Currently, the implemented activities of Islamic organizations cover a considerable social space, beginning from mosques, Islamic centers, national and religious organizations to educational facilities, professional and social organizations, student’s unions, youth and women movements. Only in Western Europe, more then 7 thousand mosques, centers and facilities belong to Muslim community. All Islamic organizations can be divided into two main categories: Union of Islamic Organizations in Europe unifies Muslim organizations alike: European Institute of Social Sciences, European Council for Fatwa and Research (ECFR), Islamic Club of Youth and Students of Europe, European Waqf (waqf – inalienable assets of Muslim community), League of Islamic School, Association of Islamic Journalists of Europe, European Islamic Council “Suleiman-zhilyar”, “Tablig” and etc. The last decade was marked by the emergence of major institutions of regional scale in Europe, which acquire the status of official establishments. They were founded with direct participation and support of official structures in the states of the Arabic and Muslim worlds. The most influential organizations are considered to be the Islamic Center in London, the Mosque of the Islamic Center in Rome, the Islamic Cultural Center in Geneva, Islamic Cultural Center in Madrid, which are all enjoying the support of the Saudi government. United Arabic Emirates, via the charitable fund-“Al-Maktum”, supervises the activities of the Islamic Cultural Center in the center of Dublin, which is considered one of the major and active Islamic centers of Europe. While the biggest mosque in Paris and one of the most ancient ones in Europe is supported by the government of Algeria. The organization with a status of official institutions provides religious and cultural- enlightening services and is managed, as a rule, by the board of guardians, which include the ambassadors of Arabic and Muslim states. Despite their efforts to provide information, their impact on Muslim masses remains limited. The prominent organizations, dealing with promotion of Islam, were the result of coordinative efforts, taken over the last decade. A bright example of this is the French Council for Islamic Religion (FCIR), which unites the majority of Islamic organizations of this country. FCIR was established though an election, conducted under the state patronage, among the Islamic institutions. The council is considered to be the official organization representing the Muslims of France. A wave of terror acts that has flowed over US and Europe in the beginning of the new century stimulated the introduction of rigid formal criteria for entrance: the language knowledge requirement is becoming more common to enter the host country, along with the basic knowledge of its legal, historical and cultural traditions as well as the acceptance of the obligation to follow the rules and respect the values. Nowadays, the security problem has become the priority along with the risks of immigration and hence, the government was forced to take rigorous measures by expanding the authority of police and increasing allocations for security maintenance in public places. Such measures, however, raise negative reaction among Muslims, which underline the growing mistrust toward them in everyday life and specifically in relation with representatives of enforcement agencies. Toughening the legal regulation of immigration and enhanced security measures reflect the growing anxiety caused by a set of immigration-born problems in all the developed states. Moreover, a vivid divergence among the economic demand for foreign labor force and public prejudice in regard to migrants has occurred. The problems of interracial relations, immigration and migrants are considered to be of the highest priority even for the residents of Great Britain – a state of traditional migration from the former colonies. In May, 2006 they were estimated as the “most important” or “important” by 41% of British, whereas in 1990s only 5% thought so. (Europe: the State of Public Opinion // http:www.mori.com, 2008, accessed on 28.08.09) The discussion over this issue has engaged not only the state structure and mass media, but also the interested participants as the association of employers, labor unions and non-commercial organizations (including the unions of migrants), as well as the local authorities. Belgium gives a great consideration to resolving of integration problems. According to the quality indexes of migration and integration management, Belgium leads among the EU states; however, no specific national model of integration has been elaborated. The Walloons, for instance, are prone to the French approach and focus on individual integration. Flanders follows the Dutch model, granting more rights to communities. Brussels tries to combine the advantages of both approaches, since a great number of Muslims are densely residing here. Islam was acknowledged as one of the official religions in Belgium back in 1974, and the religious institutes enjoy state support. The implementation of integration program leans upon the network of advisory bodies. For the first time, in 2005, members of the Muslim community has been elected to represent the interests of Muslims in state bodies. The permanently residing immigrants received the right to vote in municipalities. The Islamic Council of the Great Britain is close to being acknowledged as an official representing organization of English Muslims. It includes more than 300 Muslim organization of England. Identical institutional structures exist in Sweden (The Islamic Council of Sweden), Switzerland (The Union of Muslim Organization of Switzerland), Germany (The Islamic Council of Germany), and Italy (The Union of Islamic Diasporas and Organizations of Italy). All the abovementioned organizations aspire to become full-fledged representatives of Muslims in their countries, and those who have already achieved this status strive to fully correspond to it. They support and promote a healthy integration of Islam adherents into the European society, without losing their cultural and religious identity, and to actively participate in European ideological, political, social and cultural life. The focal objectives of these organizations can be defined as follows: - To achieve the acknowledgment of Islamic religion in European states; - To participate in ideological, political, and social life of European society; - To struggle against the racial discrimination; - To eradicate from the minds of masses the misrepresentations predefined to Islam and the stereotypes they include. (Vtoraya Islamskaya conferenziya v Berline prohodit na phone sporov, 2009). There are professional organizations existing in Great Britain, France, Germany and other west-European states. The Organizations of Muslim Doctors, for instance, became the founder of influential unions and associations, as the Assembly of Arabian Doctors (Germany), the Union of Muslim Doctors in Europe and so on. The principal purpose of these organizations is to unite Muslims according to their professional occupation, in order to solidify their social role and to support the Muslim communities and Diasporas. Presently, the activities implemented by the professional organizations of Muslims are an important tool of social service for Muslim community and European society in a whole (Vtoraya islamskaya conferenziya v Berline prohodit na phone sporov, 2009). The first Muslim Educational Institutions have emerged in the last fifteen years and nowadays there are more then 60 primary and secondary Muslim schools operating in Great Britain, around 30 in Netherlands and 13 in Sweden. Several of such schools are functioning in Belgium, Denmark, Germany and France. Beside the official curriculum, they are also teaching the Arabic language and Islamic ethics. Generally, in some countries, e.g. Netherlands, Sweden, Denmark and Belgium, the Muslim schools are supported by state. Britain also intends to include the Muslim schools into state budgetary financing (2 schools are already included at the moment). There are two thousand Sunday schools operating in Europe, teaching Arabic language and Islamic Ethics. (John Erik Fossum, Identity Politics in the European Union, ARENA Working Paper, WP, 01/17). They make a considerable contribution to preservation of religious and national identity for new generations of Muslims. Some schools teach the Arabic language and the fundamentals of the Muslim faith on an optional basis. It is also worthy to note the social role of Islamic faculties functioning in institutes and universities of the Great Britain, France, Germany, Belgium, Spain and Netherlands. Some of them simultaneously operate as integration centers of immigrants into European society. Moreover, the Muslim community has engaged into charity around two decades ago. Their aid has been received mainly by the impoverished population of Africa and Asia, as well as the vulnerable Muslim communities of Europe. The philanthropic activity is accompanied by extensive research on Muslim enclaves, aimed at determining proper strategies of their development. One of the most well-known and prominent organizations of European and even global context is the “Islamic Charity”, the headquarters of which is situated in Birmingham, England. Its affiliating branches are functioning in majority of European states. The Islamic Support and a few other organizations are acting in Europe, dedicated to help the Palestinian and Iraqi people, which are suffering of occupancy and warfare. Today, the Muslim philanthropic organizations are expanding the range of their activities, rendering assistance both to Muslims and non-Muslims, who has suffered from crises, calamities and disasters, and to anyone else in need. Founded in 1989, the Federation of Islamic Organizations in Europe (FIOE) – a non- commercial European organization, sets up the framework for organizations and institutions from 26 European states, which are the members of this union. The core mission of this organization is to support and expand the Muslim participation in Europe, to seek the optimal ways of integration into European community, in order to restore the correct and undistorted image of the true Islam. (Un Musulman est qui croit en Dieu at s’efforce de mettre sa vie entriere en accord avec la revelation Divine et les paroles du Prphete//http://www. Uoif-online.com, 2007, accessed on 07.06.09). FIOE has contributed to the establishment of European Institute of Social Studies, European Council of Fatwa and Research, the Association of Muslim Schools of Europe and the European Association of Mass Media workers. Mr. Al Banani – the Secretary General of FIOE, states that the Muslim Organizations in West are facing many problems, and the lack of funding is the main one, which particularly affects the young Muslims: the Muslim minority is in need of means to organize cultural events and to interact with civil society organizations, to give a feedback to anti-Islamic propagandas promoted through mass media. So far, the main concern is to help the second and third generation of Muslims in their search of a true correlation among their Muslim essence and social integration, says Al-Banani. He calls upon the European Muslims “to undertake the responsibility and cooperate with Islamic cultural, sportive and religious centers to achieve this particular goal”. (Un Musulman est qui croit en Dieu at s’efforce de mettre sa vie entriere en accord avec la revelation Divine et les paroles du Prphete//http://www. Uoif-online.com, 2007, accessed on 05.05.09). Another prominent Muslim Organization in Europe is the Union of Muslim Organizations of France (UMOF), which was founded in 1983, on the basis of unification of fifteen associations. According to the UMOF statute, these associations compose the General Assembly (GA), which gathers on an annual broad meeting. The GA elects the governing body, every second year. The main objective of UMOF is to contribute to the promotion of cultural, educational, social and humanitarian aid of French Muslims; to promote the individual and collective understanding of the importance of positive integration. This union believes in a need to sustain the cooperation and coordination of activities of all, who acts in favor of the French Muslim community, supporting the openness, transparency, mutual esteem, Islamo-Christian dialogue and pedagogic endeavors in this regard. As an independent organization, UMOF acts in favor of French Muslim community and supports the social order and harmony of all the French society. The main projects of UMOF include printing publication, enhancement of representation (establishment of National Coordination Committee of French Muslims). One of the basic tools of UMOF is the final declaration, endorsed at the XXIII Annual Meeting of Muslims of France in Le Burge, in 2006, which was conducted under the slogan “Religion in Daily Life”. The representatives of more then 350 cities of France and other cities of Europe, Africa, Asia and Northern America attended in there. After the exchange of views on the theme of the meeting, the participants have expressed: The commitment to Islam, true to its origins and principles of the faith and ethics that strengthens benevolence and fraternal relations as the basis of the social pact…(Un Musulman est qui croit en Dieu at s’efforce de mettre sa vie entriere en accord avec la revelation Divine et les paroles du Prphete//http://www. Uoif-online.com, 2007, accessed on 23.07.2009). 1. Indignation to Islamophobic declarations and statements, which generate the hostile and suspicious atmosphere, which puts one part of the community against the other… 2. Regret regarding the use of the principle of freedom of thought with a particular aim of maintaining racial arguments. …(Un Musulman est qui croit en Dieu at s’efforce de mettre sa vie entriere en accord avec la revelation Divine et les paroles du Prphete//http://www. Uoif-online.com, 2007, accessed on 24.07.2009). The Federation of Muslim Organizations in Europe urges all the European Muslims to express sincere solidarity to their co-citizens, the adherents of other beliefs, religions and faiths. In some EU member-states, the legislative instruments are used to regulate the religious practices, including the activity of mosques, the practical methods of sermon and proselytism, application of the concept halal (“allowed” according to Shariat law) and the use of religious symbols in public places. The majority of the states, however, still have no determined legal frameworks that would regulate the religious practice and social solidarity, for example, in regard to: - Recognition and training of Imams; - Arrangement and supervision of religious educational courses in schools; - Acknowledgment of Muslim organizations, claiming for financial support. Today, Islam has become the second largest religion in European states, including the Netherlands, where the number of Muslims is equal to the number of other religions’ representatives (excluding Christianity) – Judaism, Buddhism, Hinduism and etc, all together.(Europeization of Islam or Islamization of Europe' Alexandr Krylov, Blagovest-Info) Until 1950s of the last century, there was a small percent of Muslims living in Netherlands. In 1960, their number has grown up to 1400, however by 1992 the amount has busted, composing 484 thousand, which is 2,3% of the total number of population. Muslims have built multiple mosques and Islamic centers, the focal aim of which is to create favorable conditions for believers to fulfill one’s religious obligations and for conducting various social, educational and cultural events. There are 380 mosques functioning in 128 cities of the Netherland. The highest number of mosques is registered in Amsterdam - 29, Rotterdam – 26 and Hague - 21. (“Nashumevshaya mechet v Londone”, http://archi.ru/files/img/news/large/3664.jpg, accesed on 25.07.2009) There are hundreds of Islamic organizations and associations implementing activities, for instance, in 80 mosques that are predominantly attended by Moroccans and 96 mosques and 6 Islamic centers established by expatriates Turkish. Such organizations represent the interests of the immigrants from Muslim countries residing in Netherlands. Unfortunately, the Islamic appeal (Da’wat) constitutes only a minor share of what they are dealing with. Exceptions from the common rule are the individual Muslims, well-educated and with a good command of Dutch language, who play a significant role in establishing relations with the non- Muslim population of Netherlands. It’s interesting to note the fact that in 2005, according to the data of Islamic centers and Muslim preachers of Denmark, five thousand native residents of this country were converted into Islam by their own will (Report on the Muslims in the EU. Discrimination and Islamophobia//http://eumc.europa.eu, 2007, accessed on 23.07.2009). Besides, one third of the neophytes are young people, while the majority of women converted into Islam by marrying Muslim man. In total, there are 180 thousand Muslims living in Denmark, i.e. approximately 3% of the total amount of population. Moreover, the Islamic Ummah has three of its representatives in the parliament. However, majority of Denmark population is composed of Lutherans - 54%. (Report on the Muslims in the EU. Discrimination and Islamophobia//http://eumc.europa.eu, 2007, accessed on 16.07.2009). The situation with restricted communities of EU member-states leaves much to be desired. For instance, the Turkish community in Germany is regarded to be the most restricted in Europe. Thus, it is often called a “society within the society” (Report on the Muslims in the EU. Discrimination and Islamophobia//http://eumc.europa.eu, 2007). The cause of this is believed to be rooted in history, since Turkey has never been colonized by Germany and hence, the vast majority of the immigrants had no basic command of German language to communicate with native populace. By 1960s, Turkey has already made certain progress toward modernization, and those who have immigrated to Germany mainly came from the southern and eastern rural areas that were the least touched by the development process. The new environment that they merged into was not hostile, but rather indifferent. Turkish emigrants preferred to jointly solve the problems, e.g. studying language, searching for a stable living, adaptation to the life within the alien culture, through the establishment of immigration associations (often on religious basis). Rendering a great assistance to the first generation of the immigrants, these organizations continued to help their children. The problems of low academic achievements, which did not allow the second and third generations of Turkish immigrants to gain recognition of their German peers, the crisis of systematically unrealized expectations, etc, still were undertaken by the associations to resolve by organizing football teams and other events. Organizations, like the “Turkish Milli Guruc”, practically define the subculture of the Turkish immigrant community and decide the issue of identity. Nevertheless, the popularity of Turkish associations in Germany is perceived with a certain amount of anxiety, since the members of the Turkish communities are not giving up links with their historical motherland and keenly take interest in current state of affairs developing there. Associations may serve for adaptation as well as for consolidation of Turkish community and use it as a tool for lobbying the interests of Turkey in EU, particularly in regard to its claim for EU membership. Many of these associations have well-established relations with Turkish government. Surely, the establishment and performance of such associations is legally regulated, and their existence is an important attribute of a developed civil society. After 9/11 in particular, fears have emerged that radical Islam might develop under the canopy of Turkish associations (Plan Integrazii musulman v obschestvo Germanii, 2008). Nevertheless, the main problem of these organizations is concluded in other issues. They have created a perpetual rotation of activities, which partially help the members to enhance their level of education, taking part in social life and hence, promote their integration into German society. At the same time, another complex of their activities is directed toward the creation of a so- called “temporary identity” of German Turks – as members of an organization, based upon ethnic values. In May 2, 2007, an assembly of Islamic Conference took place in Berlin, on the initiative of the Minister of the Interior of Germany, Mr. Wolfgang Schаеuble. The participants of the conference discussed the results of the working groups. The objective of the conference was to promote the integration of the Muslims living in Germany. It is noteworthy that prior to this meeting, serious tensions were mounting among the representatives of Muslims and the government. The Central Council of German Muslims criticized the activities of the federal government, which they think is not about to equalize the Muslims in rights with the Christian churches. Thus, the government requested to establish an integrated body, which would represent the interest of all Muslims living in Germany. They founded Coordination Council, which includes the four major associations, representing only 10 percent of Muslims. (Plan Integrazii musulman v obschestvo Germanii, 2008). According to Schaeuble, this does not allow the Coordination Council to make statements on the behalf of all the German Muslims, which amount up to 3.5 million people. (Plan Integrazii musulman v obschestvo Germanii, 2008). In this regard, the Secretary General of the Central Council of Muslims – Mr. Aiman Mayek, declared that he is not intending to carry on the negotiations endlessly. The authorized representative of the federal government on integration issues – Maria Boehmer reminded that the government has assigned a three year period to achieve tangible results within the framework of Islamic Conference. Besides, she assumes that the dialogue with Muslim organizations is of great importance for the government, regardless of taken decisions. The day before the conference, the Coordination Council requested to introduce a separate course of physical training for Muslim girls and boys. This has invoked arraignment of Maria Boehmer, who said that sexual equality is one of the fundamental rights in Germany, over which no bargaining is acceptable. Boehmer emphasized that the basis of the dialogue with Muslim associations is the Constitution of the Federative Republic of Germany, the basics of which are not to be reconsidered. (Plan Integrazii musulman v obschestvo Germanii, 2008). The Algerian community in France, which numbers in nearly 700 thousand people, associates with slightly different problems. Membership in different types of associations, defining the subculture, is considerably less popular among the Algerians, in contrast to Turkish expatriates. It is obvious that the national self-determination of Algerians have been shaped by the middle of the twentieth century, which was evidenced by a bloody war between the France and Algeria, but much water has flowed under the bridge since Algeria’s independence of 1962. The peculiarities of the political history of Algeria and its economic problems formed a force that has pushed its population to France, resulting the development of a cold-indifferent attitude toward their motherland. A common Islamic identity also appears quite problematic for the second and third generations of Algerian expatriates. It is well-known that this youth is not marked by high religiosity alike their French peers. However, it is obvious that the grandchildren of Algerian immigrants haven’t transformed into fully-fledged French. They are not considered likewise by the native French, part of whom give their votes for neo-Nazi parties in elections. So far, the Algerians as well as other immigrant communities of France resolved the issue of identity quite straightforwardly. They did not fully identify themselves either with France, or with the abandoned homeland, relating them exceptionally to the street, block and with the “sensitive zone” they were living in. Social disturbances in France, organized by the immigrants’ children have been recorded since the beginning of 1980s; however until the recent time they broke up on a local scale. The disobediences, triggered by the resentment toward the police and the government actions, often busted in one area and abated after raging for some time. Before the youth gangs used to act uncoordinatedly, whereas, today the realization of common problems and accessible communication means assist in unifying their efforts. A common uniting Islamic identity should also be taken into consideration. Lost in everyday problems, one may forget about it for a while; however, when a bomb with a tear gas exploded beside the mosque Cleche- Sou-Boa, and the government presents no apologies, the insulted dignity of Muslims may force them to rebel. Nevertheless, there is still no vivid solidarity practiced among the different immigrant communities. Hostile relationships among various tribes and ethnicities yet started in their homeland and shipped to French soil (typical for expatriates African), the instincts of “parochialness” attributed to certain gangs often impede to the partition of a united front. However, the main obstacle is considered to be the conflict of generations. (Responses to “Islam in Europe – Towards European Identity and Integration”, 2007). The vast majority of the Paris disturbances were young people from 19-29 years old, while their elder fellow Muslims indifferently look at such endeavors because they attract the attention of the government. The representatives of the first generation of immigrants often remain unresponsive to various kinds of statements. Meanwhile, they have reached the age, when the desire to revolt descends, changing into a need for stability and tranquility. It was also anticipated that the recent disturbances might jump over from France to the states of “new” immigration, like Spain and Italy, though this did not happen. Lately the provocative campaign, which started in France and Germany around the issue of headscarf (Hijab), became a supplementary stimulus aggravating the situation. The absurdity of the claim, regulating the use of headwear in a democratic society is evident. It is also obvious that such actions are taken to achieve particular objective. It is enough to just take a glance at Islamic extremism in Europe, which so far was not well-studied by the scholars and thus, there is a scarce data available in this regard. Even the exact number of Muslims, residing in Europe, is not known. For instance, there are varying figures given for France: 4 millions - 6 millions or more. However, the problem do exists and some specific indicators prove the mounting concern. Thus, until the year 2000, the demonstrations of Muslims were very rarely observed in Europe. Beginning from 9/11 such protest marches became more frequent, particularly in France and Belgium. Thousands of people took part in these demonstrations, for example, in the beginning of 2004 in Paris, protesting against the ban to use Hijab in public schools. The November events in France have also generated a broad resonance in Arabic and Muslim countries. The range of responses varied from imputation of a discriminative policy of France toward the Arab and Muslim minority to identical accusations made by the state in regard to Muslim community. Muslim community was accused of not putting considerable efforts to integrate into French society, which would have helped to prevent substantial collisions among them. The office of the Fatwa of the Union of French Islamic Organizations issued a fatwa on the 6th of November 2006, which prohibited participating in disturbances, since they are “forbidden by the religion”. (Responses to “Islam in Europe – Towards European Identity and Integration”, 2007). The fatwa says: “the civil rights may not be obtained at the expense of infringement of others’ rights. We have to express our protest not at the expense of those, who are forced to observe their cars burning. Aggression is forbidden by Islam”. (Responses to “Islam in Europe – Towards European Identity and Integration”, 2007). Sheikh Ahmad Jab Allah, the representative of the Office on Fatwa of the Union of French Islamic Organizations, explained: “This fatwa was needed for the illustration of the official position of Muslim organizations. We – the French Muslims are responsible for the establishment of such structures to serve the Muslim youth, preserving their rights and preventing their participation in unlawful activities”.[i] “We will try to disseminate the information about the issued fatwa in those organizations and mosques, which are placed in the center of developed incidents, since many of the imams got “lost” within the turmoil of events. This law is also intended to assist them to keep the established order in regard to the disturbances”, - says Ahmad Jab Allah. (Report on the Muslims in the EU. Discrimination and Islamophobia//http://eumc.europa.eu, 2009, accessed on 16.07.2009). At that particular moment a controversial article was published, (Report on the Muslims in the EU. Discrimination and Islamophobia//http://eumc.europa.eu, 2009, accessed on 20.04.2009) titled “Unbelievable fatwa”, the authors of which preferred to stay undisclosed. They argue that the above mentioned fatwa confirmed the reasonableness of the disturbances from the Muslim viewpoint, triggering greater burst of indignation toward Muslims and promoting the popularity of the then Minister of Interior of France – Nicolas Sarcoziy. (Report on the Muslims in the EU. Discrimination and Islamophobia//http://eumc.europa.eu, 2009, accessed on 17.07.2009). Thus, such contradictions repeatedly were marked within the Muslim community by various researchers and analysts. A deficiency of solidarity among Muslims over the crucial aspects of social order, both in Arabic Muslim countries and their expatriate communities in EU states, has again become obvious. Following the events in Paris suburbs, the London Arabic speaking newspaper “Ash-Sharq al-ausat” published the article by the head of “Al-Arabiya” TV Channel – Abd ar-Rahman ar-Rashid, under the title “The Revolution of the Crowd”. Ar-Rashid noted: “…perhaps they are bandits and a bunch of anarchists, however they have a reason to act likewise…there is nothing else left to do, but to listen to them…this is a protest against the existing situation that the majority of people suffers from…it doesn’t matter how the French Minister of Interior calls them, - a “scum” or a “crowd”. (Vtoraya Islamskaya Konferenzia Proxodit na fone sporov, 2009) These insults are not the solution to the existing crisis situation, which may break out at any time in the future, even though it will settle down soon. The state of law and liberty (implying to France) failed solving the problems it obtained since the period of colonialism. It is unimaginable that none of the representatives of this particular minority group was accessed to parliament in this state, which is though supposed to represent all the layers of population, from the lower strata to the elites. The major parties of France have no members, which would present the interests of millions of French citizens of foreign origins, Arabs and Muslims…” (Vtoraya Islamskaya Konferenzia Proxodit na fone sporov, 2009). Simultaneously, ar-Rashid argues: “Those, who organize destruction, are least of all thinking about the consequences. Those, who burn up the schools, attack the defenseless citizens are truly the scum of society. Unfortunately, such are the voices of the society, which were not heard during the political process…let us distinguish similar scum from those, who stand out with fair demands…it would have been impossible to rise the crowd up, unless the long-lasting problem of discrimination of Arab and Muslim communities…”. (Vtoraya Islamskaya Konferenzia Proxodit na fone sporov, 2009). The Kuwaiti daily newspaper “As-Siyasa” published the article of Dr. Haitam Manaa, the representative of the Arabic Committee of Human Rights, who is currently residing in Paris. The article was called “Who Will Apologize for the Immigrant Youth'” Here the author argues that: “today, when the mass protests took place in the suburbs and the north of Paris, following the murder of two young men, which were trying to escape from police, the French “Human Rights Society” could only describe the events as “three decades of failure and three year of ineffective decisions, which are assumingly the politics of the state”. (Vtoraya Islamskaya Konferenzia Proxodit na fone sporov, 2009). The activity of the committee confirmed the growing number of cases recording chauvinistic manifestations by different security services. On March 15, 2000 the Advisory Committee on Human Rights (of France) has issued a report, which informs about the fact that 70% of French people admit the manifestation of racism in their everyday life. (Vtoraya Islamskaya Konferenzia Proxodit na fone sporov, 2009). Besides, a public opinion poll was conducted, according to which around 60% of population assume that the number of immigrants is extremely high and needs to be reduced. (Vergaelen, Is Europe Secular or religious, 2006). In April 2003, a reputable American magazine “Times” ranked Tariq Ramadan among 100 of global scholars and thinkers, which have considerably impacted the contemporary world society. Perhaps, this title seems to be too vigorous, though it is worthy to note that Dr. Ramadan acquired a particular rank among the present-day Arabic philosophers. There are many books he has wrote and the following deserve a particular notice: “What does it mean to be a European Muslim” (1998), “Islam, West and the contemporary challenges” (2000), “Juhad, violence, war and peace in Islam” (2002), “Western Muslims and the future of Islam” (2003). Moreover, he has published more then 700 articles in academic journal, newspapers and magazines. In response to the November events of 2005, Tariq Ramadan has published an article in one of the Arabian – speaking newspapers, where he warns about the threat of confusing different concepts and phenomenon. He considers that: “what is presently happening in France is profitable for particular groups of clericals, who are interested in destruction and violence. However, the interest of clericals is not the only reason of this particular wave of violence. Besides, the socio- economic motives also underlie in November events, which are destroying France, creating two separate worlds: the world of suburbs and the world of urban districts, inhabited by the rich and middle class representatives”. Taking about the resolution of this situation, Ramadan proposes: “Security and order should be restored, since it is obvious that such actions will not bring positive results in solving the pile of problems. Presently, the solidarity of France is a myth, both in social and economic terms. These problems do not refer to secularization phenomenon. The statements of Nikola Sarcozie (particularly in regard to the “crowds”) are absolutely unacceptable. We may not protect one part of France by insulting the other. In an article, published on one of the French websites, the Muslim intellectual juxtaposes the French model of integration with the British one. He assumes that: “the French model is not better or worse then its British equivalent” (Ramadan, To Be a European Muslim, 2001). Ramadan notes that if discrimination in England was always rooted in ethnic basis, in France it underlies under the economic factors. Meanwhile, the author argues that the struggle against the discriminatory and racialist manifestations should be initiated from education system. The schools’ curriculums have to include the contribution made by the immigrants to the development of French society. Tariq Ramadan drags a particular attention toward the fact that the contemporary curriculum of French schools “…includes very few hours for studying the history and tradition of people, who compose the contemporary French society” (Ramadan, To Be a European Muslim, 2001). The scholar believes that the fair demands of the French and British Muslims were so far not heard, and thus “the violence they have caused is per se unlawful, though unfortunately quite understandable”. Regarding the reaction developed toward these events in the Middle East, one may bring as an example the statement of sheikh Yusef al- Karadawi made to Qatar news agency. Sheikh al-Karadawi is a famous Egyptian theologian, currently residing in Qatar. He is the ideologist of European Council on fatwa and scientific researches (ECFS). According to various sources, al-Karadawi is considered to be one of, if not the most, prominent Muslim preachers in Western and Arabic worlds, and is tightly interconnected with the organization of “Muslim Brothers”. His name also figures as of being connected with “Al-Qaida”. Al-Kardawi expressed regret in regard the events happening in France. He called upon for Muslims to act wisely and cautiously. The main reason of such a cautious statement is seen to be an endeavor to preserve kind relations with French government, partially due to its negative stand toward the Iraqi war, which Al-Karduwi considers to be “just and fair”. Besides, al-Karduwi urged the French government not to be focused only upon the preservation of security in this situation. He assumes that it is crucial “to reach mutual understanding of how the persisting problems of cultural, social, educational and economic character faced by Muslim communities of France should be resolved”. The ex-Minister of Education of Kuwait – Ahmad ar-Rabi also made statements in a reputable Arabic-speaking newspaper “Ash-Sharq al-Ausat”. He has stated: “we may find excuses for the fits of anger and express understanding of the fact that it is an expected consequence of racialist policy and isolation of minorities in France. However, this does not exempt the leaders of Arabic states from a necessity to initially conduct self-analysis prior to engaging into a dialogue with others and comprehensively debate over the domestic problems, existing in Arabic world, before the researching of French society”. Ar-Rabi argues that all the happened acts of violence are benefiting only those who implement the racialist policy in regard to minorities, pushing the French government to use this policy on the official level. Ar-Rabi also notes that “there is an anarchy reigning in Arabic community, and the last events are proving it. There is no one capable of taking the responsibility over the governance of the community and provide peace and security. No valid civil society institutes are there to impact the public opinion within the minorities’ environment. The Frenchmen of Arabic origins were unable to establish in cultural terms and to use the achievements of the French society in repel the development of extremist tendencies”. Developing the topic, ar-Rabi emphasizes that: “this minority should question itself about the contradiction existing between its considerable size and minimal achievements it reached in politics, economy, culture and science”. “The Frenchmen of Arabic origins have to behave as the French citizens. They have to prove to the entire French society that they are the integral part of it. This means that that they have to use any possible achievements of social development, be extremely active in improving their subsistence and level of education, struggle against those elements, which harm the Arabic community through its deviant behavior, and get rid of the ghettos’ mentality and become a part of French civilization”. A Saudi state newspaper “Al-Utan” has published the highly discouraging comments of Dr. Ali Saad al-Mussa, which particularly mentioned that: “the flames in Paris suburbs have exacerbated all those problems, which accumulated in relation to Arab immigration. Arab is incompetent to live in a harmony with a culture differing from his own, due to a single and simple reason: presently, Arabs are situated within their own circle, which is beyond the circle of development of the global culture…nevertheless, many immigrants have settled down in a new country. Therewith, they are unable to strive for a genuine equality with the aboriginal inhabitants of the host country. Generations of Arabs that has immigrated to France did not comprehend and accept the situation, even though France is one of the most immigration favorable countries…” Basically, this comment highlights one of the main development problems of the Arabic community – the problem of self-development. As to Al-Mussa, “those who blame the French government for exacerbating the situation in Paris suburbs are mistaken. The Frenchmen of Arabic origins preserve their legacy, culture, traditions and behavioral manners…thus, there appear streets, schools, service industries in Paris suburbs typical for the Moroccan cities, where they have remained unchanged for centuries. No respect is practically shown toward the French government. Immigration requires mental predisposition.” Dr. Khaled al-Jinfawi has expressed a slightly different viewpoint in this regard in his article “Freedom, Equality and Brotherhood – not for all”, which was published in Quwait daily newspaper “As-Siyasa” (Hein J. Constructive debate on Islam, 2003). The author particularly underlines: “the fact of incompetence of some immigrant communities to culturally and socially integrate into the structure of the western countries negatively reflects upon the implementation of many western ideas to ensure the “freedom, equality and brotherhood” in the Middle East. Al-Jinfawi questions: “if the ideals of equality, justice, democracy, and human rights, which have appeared in Europe and endorsed by the French Revolution in the end of XVIII century, could not eradicate poverty and inequality then how they are supposed to change the state of affairs in the Middle East. Analyzing the events happened in France, it is important to note that they have touched upon all the social stratums of population of France and the states of Arabic and Muslim worlds. This is evidenced by the speeches of ordinary passerby, made for the Mass Media, in the streets of different European and Middle Eastern states, as well as the discussions of the prominent western and Arabic intellectuals, and the representatives of the ruling elites. Definitely, the disturbances in France have evidently shown the disproportions, mismatches and problems, which do exist and are particularly pronounced in Arabic-Muslim community. If earlier such problems were openly discussed over the joint debates by attracting sociologists, philosophers, culture experts, economists, journalists and etc., then nowadays they demand an equilaterally developed program. This action plan has to be focused upon the self-development and the prevention of the promised long-simmering “clash of civilizations” first of all for the representatives of the Arabic – Muslim communities, quitting the expectation of a help from outside and counting on a self-resolution of the basic conflicts. Considering the development of the radical fundamentalism and terrorism of the global scale, it is worthy to note that since the 9/11 thousands of suspects in terrorism were arrested in Europe (in France, Belgium, Germany, Great Britain, Italy, Spain, Netherlands, etc). However, the number of the new arrestees grows every week, which proves that the number of people, moving from the idea to action also increases. Since the summer of 2003, dozens of young Muslims were recruited and sent to Iraq, though the exact dimensions of the threat is yet hard to determine. The French internal intelligence service - les Renseignements Generaux tried to define a formula, which would calculate the number of possible religious fundamentalists within the Muslim population of France. Based upon the extensive studies conducted in France, the formula was deduced as follows: usually five percent of the Muslim population is inclined toward the religious fundamentalism. Three percent out of these five pose a potential danger. Thus, if to consider France and its six million Muslim populations then we have 300 thousand fundamentalists, 9 thousand of which are potentially dangerous. Presently, the most explosive countries in Europe are considered to be the France, Belgium, Netherlands, Italy, Great Britain and Germany. Beyond the European Union, Bosnia poses substantial danger in this regard. Obviously, the highest number of Muslim population is concentrated in these countries; however this does not mean that the average Muslim population is fundamentalist or dangerous. The majority of Muslims want to live a normal and decent life, though the tendency of returning to religious lifestyle is clear and massive. A big Muslim community presents favorable statistical possibilities for the recruitment and more spaces to hide. Nevertheless, those state, which have no Muslim population are not secure either. For instance, in Slovenia, where practically no Muslim is living, a cell of promotion and financing of “Hizb-Allah” appeared functioning in Bratislava University. Great Britain, Spain, Italy and Belgium are more radicalized in contrast with other EU states. The percentage of terrorists in these states is considerably higher, compared to the percent of Muslims residing there from the total number of Muslims in Europe. For example, Britain is home for 20% of all terrorists in Europe, though the number of Muslim residents living in UK constitutes only 12% of the total in Europe (Spain: 18 and 8% relatively, Italy: 15 and 8, Belgium: 7 and 3%). The highest number of terrorists (22%) is in France, along with the largest Muslim community in Europe (34%). However, in Germany, the Muslim extremism is considerably less developed. Only one percent of Muslims, a quarter of all European Muslims, is living in Germany, though the percent of terrorists bred here composes only 9%. There are multiple and diverse cases of Islamic extremism manifestation in Europe. First of all, the Muslim communities differentiate from each other throughout the Europe. In France, for instance, the majority of Muslims are of Algerian origins, since Algeria used to be the French colony for more than 130 years. In 1962, the Algerian communities appeared in France and the number of Algerians grew, as more and more Muslims came to Europe in search of job and better subsistence. After some time, in 1970s, the French authorities permitted the policy of a so-called “family reunion” (or “regroupement familial” in France), and thus, hundred thousands of new immigrants came to France. Muslim immigration was not traditional in Belgium, Germany and Italy, and rather occurred due to economic reasons: in 1960s, the heavy industry and construction sites were in lack of labor force, which was quite hard to find among the local inhabitants. This has triggered the initiation of immigration into these states (Tereschenko, Problema XXI veka- immigratzia – nadezhda Germanii, 2005). When we talk about immigration, we also use the concepts of the first, second and third generation of immigration. The first generation is composed of people, who came to Europe to work. They are supposed to be over 60 years old by now. The second generation is basically their children, which came to Europe, while being very young or even were born in Europe. Presently, they are probably 30-50 year old. The third generation is constituted of the second generation’s children, which were born in Europe and presently are below their 30s. Feeling like an outcast in a state, where they reside, they develop sympathy for all the “victimized Muslims worldwide” and persuade themselves that the causes of their alienation and the “persecution” of their brothers have a single core: rejection of Islam by the Western World; the majority of Muslim priests, even the non-radical ones, are shipped from abroad and often are trained in Saudi Arabia or taught muftis. They have no workable knowledge of society that their adherents are residing in, and, as the research conducted in France and Netherlands shows, they do not even speak the local languages. Thus, they cannot play a significant role in relieving the tension of relations with EU states governments or assist the integration process. Many Europe Muslims refuse to acknowledge such shipped caliphs, accusing them in propagating the “Islam of the rich men”, rejecting the non-official mosques. However, this is not a way-out: the so- called “Underground Islam” is often contended by self-proclaimed caliphs, whose religious knowledge is extremely doubtful. Wherever there are radical caliphs propagating, the above mentioned facts are used in their own interests to protect the radical Islam and attack the western values or the European or American policies, which they condemn of being an anti-Islamic or pro-Zionistic. Their activities are also promoted by the presence of refugees in Europe (particularly in universities and secondary schools), which were compelled to flee from their home countries due to cells like the “Muslims Brotherhood”, “Hizb-Allah” or “Hamas”, Algerian, Moroccan, Tunisian or Turkic groups acting within the universities. Some of the existing groups have been established symbolically to show solidarity with the “prosecuted Muslims” in Afghanistan, Algeria, Bosnia and etc. Though, in majority of the cases, these movements were founded and managed by the organizations, covering the “Muslim Brotherhood”. The last generation of European Islamists has emerged along with the initiation of war in Iraq in 2003. This young generation already began to appear in court inquiries for committing terror acts (Muslims Radicalization, Indonesia and the US policy, 2004). The threat is real and at the same time it can be characterized as political and terroristic. In regard to its political dimension, the Islamists are trying to overthrow the western society, questioning the human values as the gender equality, freedom of religion, freedom of speech and etc. They support the establishment of political parties based on religion, creation of Shariat tribunals to try the civil and personal cases and etc. They know that it is too hard for them to gain victory in this battle, but still hope for the creation and deepen the separation line among the Muslims and non-Muslims. However, their focal objective is to radicalize the Muslim communities. In regard to terroristic dimension, the Islamists organize the rear and operative cells. Here we have quite precise facts and figures available. Since the 9/11, around 20 major–scale terror acts were prevented in Europe. However, two of the terror acts were successfully executed – a blast in Madrid on March 11, 2004 and the assassination of the Dutch film director Theo Van Gogh in Amsterdam on November 2, 2004. If to consider the date - 11th of March 2004 as a reference point, one may see how many terror acts were prevented. In April, 2004, the Belgian federal police service has detected and prevented two terror acts yet on a preparation stage: the firsts was intended to hit the European school in Antwerp, whereas the other was planned to take place during the rally devoted to the opening of the tunnel “TVG” in the same city. In spring 2004, an attack on the National Audience (the highest judicial instance of the state, where the famous judge Balthazar Garson works) was prevented. In June 2004, the Moroccan terrorist organization “GICM” attempted to strike a blow on several distinguished statesmen in Lisbon, including Jose Manuel Baroso – the President of the European Commission. The “HOFSTAD” terrorist cell (responsible for the assassination of Van Gogh) planned few attacks, particularly a number of assassinations, including the one of the representative of Somali – Ayan Hirshi Ali, and the terror act in the parliament with a use of a mined vehicle or a bomb, an attack on a secret service headquarters, the Schiphol airport and etc. The elimination of this cell after the assassination of Van Gogh ensured the prevention of the following planned criminal activities. In November 2004, a group of individuals were arrested in Germany, on suspicion of preparing the assassination of the Iraqi Prime Minister Iyad Ollohi. This brief review of the quantity and quality of the planned “aims” clearly demonstrates, contrary to majority opinion, that Europe is still a target for the Islamists. This concerns not only the European states, which support the US in Iraqi war, as the majority of Europeans assume. The terror acts that has taken place in Madrid on March 11, were prepared in 2000-2001., when the war in Iraq has not yet started, and thus, there were no Spanish military forces present there. By the time, when the attack on National Audience was planned, Spain has already left Iraq. Besides, France and Belgium are not participating in Iraqi war, and the governments of both of these state has condemned the American intervention. However, the major terror attacks were directed toward these two states in Europe. The want of Islamist in attacking Europe is not a congenital phenomenon; it has its origins in the nature of the old continent. No matter how diverse are the US and Europe from the other countries (like Australia, Canada, Japan, Korea), they all belong to the same “camp” – “the western world” (this definition has no ethnocentric character, and thus, we may include here some of the Asian states), which adhere to the same democratic values. These values are basically perceived with hostility by the Islamists. Even though, presently, there is no military presence in Iraq, majority of the European states used to and still are in Afghanistan, and the European Union made a political promise to help the new Iraq in its reconstruction and stabilization. As a rule, the minor groups often consist of individuals, which obtain strong local links, enabling them to count on solidarity and support from the families and communities. These groups are also interconnected with marginal groups of society and the criminal circles, which increases the scope of danger they pose. Thus, the “new Islamists” basically experience no difficulties with finding shelter, weapon or explosives. Presently, the “new” terrorist cells more often intersect with each other then it used to be before: the HOFSTAD cell, based in Netherlands, prepared its actions within the state and simultaneously participated in planning the terror acts in Portugal and Spain.[ii] The declining average age of the recruits, interrelation with criminality, internationalization and etc., are the reasons of the experts’ concern. Al-Qaida plays a historical role of establishing an international terrorist network, which has unified tens of separate organizations. Now, when this objective has been reached, we may state that the international Islamist terrorism does exist and quite effective. Groups of Moroccan, Algerian, Chechen, Pakistani, Saudi, Iraqi and other organizations jointly cooperate in vastly complicated projects. The role of Al-Qaida is to create a general structure of Jihad, determine the objectives and make decisions (fatwa), in order to act properly. Surely, all or at least the majority of the organizations were interconnected with “Al-Qaida” for a certain period in the past. In order to resolve these topical issues, it is necessary to coordinate the legislation and establish tighter management within the EU framework. However, three particular factors prove that the degree of danger is not about to decline in the nearest future. First of all, the situation in Iraq continues being the most powerful mobilizing factor. The elections, which have taken part in the end of January, 2009, were the most important phase in evolution of Iraq, though the major part of the work is still to be done. However, the Islamists are directing their utmost efforts to destabilize the situation in Iraqi society. Secondly, Europe and NATO has reached the agreement to maintain stability in Iraq, whereas the strategic objective of Islamists is to make the Europe to give up this position by using force and, moreover, to isolate the new government and the coalition troops. Thirdly, the situation in Morocco causes anxiety. Presently, the most widely presented and dangerous terrorist organization in Europe is considered to be the GICM. The organization has incurred loses in Europe and Morocco, though the struggle is still far to be over. The development of situation in Morocco in the near future will affect the state of affairs in Europe. If terrorism remains strong and will not be eradicated at its core, its consequences will have an effect on Europe, since the Moroccan groups will admit new members in host countries. A “new generation” of Islamic terrorists is just emerging in Europe. Recruited from the “third wave” of immigration, they have encountered the problem of self-identification and felt as the victims of immigration. This might push the young individuals to engage into violence. Thus, summing up the above-stated, we conclude that the future destiny of multiculturalism in European Union will depend upon how good the Christian and secular values of contemporary Europe will coexist with irreconcilable and ill-assimilating Muslim community. Surely, the hypothesis is quite disputable, but it can be objectively stated that Islam as an existing cultural and social phenomenon in contemporary Europe brings into question the very existence of the idea of multiculturalism as a socio-political structure. CHAPTER 4: Muslim Immigrants and European Public Opinion This chapter is focusing on analyzing the following issues: the change in European public opinion concerning Muslim immigrants, the prospect of their further existence at the previous living space after the tragedy of September 11, 2001 and following events, organizers and participants of the terror act, their background and other social characteristics, analysis of the international terrorism growth. The growth of Muslim community in Western Europe is an objective process. However, for Europeans, immigrants of Eastern origin remain “alien” as before, a so-called strange element, whose culture, traditions and customs remain to the certain extend obscure and even intimidating. On the other hand, many if not the majority of immigrants, coming to Eastern Europe do not attempt for integrating into the new society. Consequently, a blind obstacle of mutual misunderstanding and moreover lack of willingness to resolve the situation remains between European natives and immigrants, even those immigrants who have been residing in European countries for a sufficient period of time. In sum, these factors along with political, economical and social groundings cause high level of tension in interconfessional relations of Western European states, which might be hidden, though periodically revealing during mass disturbances, as for instance cases which happened in Great Britain, France and Germany during the past years. This is to a certain extend justifiable considering constant discrimination of Muslim minorities by European nationals. Immigrants are being denied job placement, unreasonably arrested by police, insulted in the streets and even beaten. The survey conducted in 2005 by the British analytical organization “ICM Research” ordered by the editorial board of “The Guardian” newspaper indicated that regardless the negative changes in the attitude of British citizens toward Muslims, the majority of Muslim people (63%) living in Great Britain do not want to leave the country. At the same time, 67% of Muslim people older 35 years of age are considering the possibility of “returning back home” after acts of terror in London, committed on July 7 2005. (Benedictov, Ultrapraviy Flang Evrop, 2006). Approximately half of the respondents of Muslim community in Great Britain admitted that the community did not actively counter the extremists (38% have opposite view). Only quarter of the surveyed respondents stated that either they or their family members have experienced any type of persecutions or assaults after the act of terror committed on July 7th. 58% of the British Muslims consider the acts of terror in London as a consequence followed after participation of Great Britain in Iraq war (21% consider this connection unsubstantial, 10% disclaim this version totally). 81% believe that the act of suicide terrorists have no justification, 5% consider that these types of acts can be justified (O Neill, Al faith stands united as London remembers, 2007). European Center of racism and xenophobia monitoring (EUMC) has submitted a report on the disastrous state of European Muslims. According to the report, life for European Muslims which was not easy previously considerably became sophisticated after the act of terror in Madrid and homicide of the Dutch film producer Van Gogh T. This producer was murdered by young immigrant, Moroccan by birth (the arrestee has double citizenship – Morocco and Netherlands) after his film “Obedience” a story on the destiny of 4 Muslim women appeared on the screen, which deeply insulted religious feelings of Muslims. Notwithstanding, Muslim leaders of Europe condemned the action of young Moroccan, highlighting the disparity of his action with Islam, the attitude of Europeans towards Muslims considerable deteriorated (Rogers Power A. 2005: the year of numbers, 2005). The published survey indicates that not all Islamophobic incidents occurring in 25 member states of EU are being registered. According to the report of EUMC European Muslims are undergoing different types of intolerance- starting from direct violence and threats to discrimination during job search or search of place to live. Hundreds of indentified cases of violence and threats against Muslims in the whole continent are enumerated in the report including mosque attacks and insults of women, wearing hidjab or veil. As the report shows, this data possibly is not complete, since not all the cases of religious motives of committed crimes are reflected in the statistics of EU member states. Currently, this type of data is published only in Great Britain. According to the statement of the Center director, Winkler B, “the report clearly indicates that Muslims are often experiencing different forms of discrimination, which negatively influences on their possibilities in terms of education and employment. This causes a sense of despair in Muslims and disrupts the feeling of belonging to EU” (Rogers, Power A. 2005: the year of numbers, 2005). The report contains an appeal to the governments on accelerating integration of Muslims and simultaneously is an emphasis on the active combating of Muslims against stereotypes and fears associated with extremism. “Integration is a mutual process. Many European Muslims admit the importance of making more effort towards integrating with other parts of the society”- says Winkler, additionally European political leaders need to double their attempts on promotion of sensible intercultural dialogue and more effective way of combating racism, discrimination and marginalization” (Rogers, Power A. 2005: the year of numbers, 2005). The reference in the report is made on the study program of religions in Luxemburg and communal forums in Netherlands as positive examples. As the report says: “The number of cases, when Muslims have been attacked considerably increased after the 9/11 terror act. Quite often, immigrants experiencing assaults have similar appearance with Muslims and hence, this confirms the assumption that the main targets of racists are precisely those, who confess Islam” (Rogers, Power A. 2005: the year of numbers, 2005) Another report, published in July 2004, shows that according to the survey results 9 out of 10 British people have no friends, who belong to the national or religious minorities (Summary report on Islamophobia in the European Union, 2009). Authors of the report connect it with anti-Muslim propaganda, especially intensified after September the 11th. British Muslims quite often encounter biased attitude of police towards them, which is displayed in warrantless search and arrest cases. Many Muslims as well complain about problems frequently occurring at work due to the fact that they are being estimated as terrorists. British citizens adhere to the rigorous line of behavior toward Muslims, standing for their religion. British people vaguely imagine good relationship between Muslims and the rest of the British population. According to the newspaper “The Times”, in the beginning of this year Muslims have organized demonstrations, putting up slogans of protest at the Trafalgar square. This was an upheaval of Muslim community against the Danish caricature of Muhammad’s picture. According to the survey of the public opinion 86% of citizens consider it as “an intense reaction” of Muslims; 29% of British people think that publication of the caricature in Denmark was a correct action and the caricature should be published somewhere else as well. 76% of British believe that people with such posters must be arrested. Notwithstanding, the authorities do not consider necessary to confront Islamic extremists; 80% of British people even think that the government is too tolerant to Muslims expressing ideas of extremisms. 81% of British adhere to the opinion that foreigners standing for racial and religious intolerance must leave Britain, even if it threatens their lives. 87% of British expect attacks of Islamic groups comparable to acts of terror in London on July 7th; only 17% of British believe in peaceful coexistence of Muslims and representatives of other religions in Great Britain. 67% are pessimistically oriented, and expect worsening of the situation. 34% think that Eastern Nations can peacefully co-exist with Muslims, 45% are not agreeing with the statement. The new report of the International Helsinki Federation on human rights (The International Helsinki Federation has a status of consultant in UN and European Council) testifies that Muslims living in Europe more frequently encounter discrimination after the tragedy of September 11th 2001. The authors of the report - “Intolerance and discrimination of Muslims in EU” have studied the situation in 11 member states of EU. (Summary report on Islamophobi, 2009). The report highlights both the negative attitude toward Muslims, which is “prevalent” in Europe, and on mass media sources, which do not make objective coverage of the events, portraying Muslims as “Internal enemies”. The conclusions were made based on the prepared data including statements of Muslim and Anti-racial organizations, human rights organizations, reports of mass media sources and official documents. According to the report, in France, the debate over the law, which prohibits wearing religious symbolism in schools, stimulates discrimination of Muslim women, which wear hijab. The attempt of protecting traditional, in France, separation of church from state resulted in abandoning Muslim women to marry, to elect and pass exams if wearing hijab as well as prohibiting to wear Muslim headscarves at public institutions. As the authors of the report claim, mass media sources in Great Britain create an impression for the audience as if the law enforcement agencies effectively track Islamic terrorists according to the law. However, according to the authors, the majority of arrestees, who have been accused for terrorism, are released without further charge. 80% of German respondents associated the word “Islam” with the words “terrorism” and “violation of women rights”. Nonetheless, it is obscure as to what extend such perception influences on the degree of violation. As the report affirms, the schools for Muslim children in Netherlands are considered disruptive for the “attempts of integration” (Summary report on Islamophobia, 2009). However, these accusations practically do not have any basis. The disputes over - how the policy of coexistence of different cultures helps national minorities - are ongoing in many European states. The idea of assimilation into the European society as a way of preventing national minorities` leave, especially Muslims is highlighted mostly in the report. Thus, according to the opinion of the authors they remain apart from the rest of the society. The International Helsinki Federation warns that the increasing “distrust and brutality” towards Muslims leads to the loss of faith in triumph of law which eventually further stimulates activation of extremist organizations. Recommendations on strengthening legislation in the sphere of racial discrimination and implementation of constant monitoring in this sphere are as well enclosed in the report. Furthermore, authors of the report are for propaganda of tolerance among Europeans through mass media sources. Special emphasis must be made on the way of addressing minorities and combating prejudice. Until recently governments of European states did not acquire well-defined policy regarding Muslim communities, they have been limited to accepting Islam at the constitutional level and promotion of conditions for development of their political and financial independence. Modern socio-economical research methods nearly have not been used in none of the criminological, political, cultural-religious or economical researches of the origin and essence of global jihad. Most of the time particular events (for instance acts of terror) or subjective evaluations (for instance the meaning of Palestine Caliphate) are being used as an argument. During his speech at the seminar “Combating Islamophobia” in 2004, general secretary of the UN at that time Kofi Annan stated that, unfortunately, “many people in the world erroneously consider Islam as a force which is aiming at resistance of the West. The ignorance is remaining deep and the stereotype is living in the minds of many people” (O’ Neill S. All faith stands united). Annan noted that Islamophobia is causing greater threat for the peace and unity in the world. He continuingly addressed the fact that after acts of terror on September 11, 2001 many Muslims, especially those living in the West became victims of unfair oppression and discrimination. (Islam ne vstupaet v protivirechie s moralnimi I duhovnimi cennostyami Niderlandov, 2007). According to the survey data conducted by the Turkish Rain Research Center in 2004 among citizens of Germany, those who have Turkish background, nearly 80% encountered discrimination to a different extend. Similar survey conducted 5 years earlier showed that 65% of the Turkish Diaspora, which includes more than two million people have experienced discrimination and have felt themselves as second-class citizens. The last researches are quite unfavorable, as they show the rise of anti-Turkish attitude in the country which eventually can result in total isolation of ethnic Turks. As well they disprove the statements of many mass media sources on the issue that Turks have made their choice preferring to live in isolated communities. As the research shows, 75% of Turks are living in the areas where there are only 20% of Germans, the so –called “Turkish neighborhoods”. The parallel survey among Germans indicated that the majority think Turkish people are not making as much effort as necessary to assimilate into the German society. Moreover, 52% of Germans think that the number of immigrants living in Germany is more than enough.43% of the German respondents stated that the number of immigrants in the country is not beyond the norm. (Islam ne vstupaet v protivirechie s moralnimi I duhovnimi cennostyami Niderlandov, 2007). In 2004, a German minister on integration issues - Marielouise Bek, presented an action-plan on combating extremism and integration of Muslims into the German society for further hearings. The presented plan consists of 20 points, the first of which is a mandatory requirement of German language proficiency and awareness on public-political situation of the country for all Imams coming to the country. Bek, who as well is a member of the Green Party intends to achieve establishment of special study centers for this purpose, where along with the German language, German culture and legal norms are being taught. “Muslim religious leaders are those who must create social bridges” said the minister during interview for Deutsche Welle channel. In her opinion, German language courses must be mandatory not only for Imams but for all immigrants entering the country. Former counselor of Germany Gherhard Shreder stated that, European leaders currently have an historical chance of “building bridges in relationship with Muslims” (Plan integracii musulman v obschestvo Germanii, 2008). The minister as well addressed the radicals and representatives of the extreme right movements and party with an appeal to stop creating negative stereotypes in the minds of citizens about Islam and people who confess Islam.” If not, we are putting at risk what we have achieved throughout the years of mutual residence. The statements as incompatibility of Islam with German constitution have absolutely no ground and totally contradict the principles of pluralism”, - says the minister. She as well emphasized the importance of punishment both for racist, islamophobs and imams, who are calling for “active movements” in their sermons. According to the research conducted by the Institute of Interdisciplinary investigation of conflicts and violence at Belferd University, currently the tendency of Islamophobia is growing in Germany. Ex-president of Germany Johansson Ray commented on this issue, saying that “Muslims are citizens of Germany as others; therefore no one has the right to consider them second class people.” In 2004 Muslim organizations of Dutch port city became a target of islamophobical attacks committed by the Right National Party Leefbaar Rotterdam (LR-literally meaning “suitable for life in Rotterdam”). The racists demanded from the city authorities to set number of limitations for Muslims. The head of the Muslim Organizations Union Yusuf Davran commented that his organization due to these circumstances asked other influential political parties provide support which stood up for defending Muslims. LR addressed the city authorities with an appeal to prohibit (according to some data Rotterdam, which is predominantly labors city, has approximately 100 000 Muslims population) building of new mosques for Muslim communities, to limit the height of minaret to 35 meters and to set censorship over religious meetings and sermons in 25 mosques. The party won municipal elections in 2002 thanks to their leader Pim Fortyan and thus became the leading party in the city after 30 years of Laborists’ Party domination. U. Davran who is the member of a union which consists of 40 Islamic organizations stated that the appeal addressed by LR is not only a complete violation of civil rights of Muslims but as well principals of a secular state, secured by the constitution of Netherlands. Political organizations are not allowed to interfere into the internal issues of any religion in a secular state, unless it is not posing a threat to the safety of society and state. “Moreover, the constitution of our country is guaranteeing freedom of religion for the citizens”, says Muslim activist. Actions of the radical party as well provoked criticism and protest of other main parties of Netherlands- leyborists, socialists and the greens. The nationalists were as well condemned by archbishop of Rotterdam Domean Feasher, who claimed that similar actions of the political party are unacceptable. “Muslims have the right to build their mosques and to confess their religion freely whereas the authorities must respect their religion and civil rights, which is enjoined by constitution”, says the archbishop. (Natsionalistizteskay partia Niderlandov vystupila protiv musulman, 2007). Despite of this, government of Netherlands in 2006 showed that Islam is not contradicting with spiritual and moral values of the nation of European states. The research results inspired Muslims in terms research conducted by the of integration into the European society.” The research is entirely a big step towards more serious dialogue of the authorities with Muslims. Moreover, it contributes to combating extremism”, - stated professor of Islamic Sciences of the Amsterdam Free University Marzuk Abdulla Avlad, - “Islam is a religion which can be in contact with society and comply with the demands of the society.” The research which was conducted during 3 years by the Scientific Council of the government demonstrated that Islam is not contradicting with the principals of democracy enjoined by the constitution of Netherlands and spiritual and moral values of European society. The report on the research results is as well highlighting that Netherlands and the European Union in general are aiming at achieving mutual understanding with Muslim organizations, particularly with the “Muslim Brothers” of Egypt and Lebanese “Hezbollah”. Furthermore, based on the report, the majority of Muslim organizations is either supporting democracy or are not deprecating against it. Authors of the report as well recommending governments of European states to not refuse providing support for Palestine and cooperate with the democratically elected government, directed by “Hamas” movement. (Otnoshenie pravayztey koalitzii Niderlandov k musulmanskomu obrazovaniu, // http://islam.com.ua/news, 2008, accessed on 25.07.2009). Professor Avlad complained that the vision of Europeans about Islam very often is based on the anti-Islamic propaganda of mass media sources and the Right Political Party. “A small group of extremists are provoking conflict between Muslims and rest of the citizens”, says professor Avlad. In 2003 a conflict over prohibiting Islamic education in this European country raised between to parties which form a ruling coalition in Netherlands. According to the reports of mass media sources the conflict between Christian-democratic party (CDP) and liberal party “VVD” constitutes a threat for further operation of the leading coalition which is being criticized periodically for the severe policy implemented by the party since 2003. The leader of liberal party “VVD” Gerrit Zalm stated during the party’s assembly in south- eastern Dutch city Eindhoven, that government must prohibit Muslim schools in the country. (Otnoshenie pravayztey koalitzii Niderlandov k musulmanskomu obrazovaniu, // http://islam.com.ua/news, 2008, accessed on 15.07.2009). «Thus religious institutions cause an obstacle for social integration», - claims vice prime- minister. Gerrit Zalm as well emphasized on the issue that students of Muslim schools remain behind of their peers who study at other schools. Furthermore, they have problems with Dutch language. Statements of Gerrit Zalm regarding prohibition of religious schools were criticized by the leaders of Christian democrats who considered his point violation of the constitutional norms. The Minister of education, science and culture Mariya Van der Khoven, chairman of the Christian-democratic party underlined that liberals have not authority and rights over prohibiting Muslim education, as article 23 of the Netherlands constitution allows private education. Zalm suggested to temporarily halting the article 23 of the Constitution due to the treat posed to the national interests by Muslim education. Social-democrats, who have 43 seats at the parliament, which in total comprises 150 members of the constitutional membership, stood up for having religious education including Christian considering that religious education is an integral part of private education. According to the Dutch secular legislation, statutes are not empowered to discredit religious believes of the citizens. Thus, Muslim education can not be prohibited as can not be prohibited other type of religious education. Yan de Reas, parliamentarian of Christian democrats accused Zalm for not differentiating Muslim education in general with the fact that some students of Muslim schools can be unbred. He underlined that Muslim schools are not necessarily worse than other schools of Netherlands. The parliamentarian highlighted that 96% of the country’s immigrants do not attend religious schools consequently considered arguments of Zalm groundless. Yan de Reas as well highlighted that proficiency of Dutch language is more substantial problem rather than disapproval of Muslim education. He recited contradictions in statements made by the leaders of liberal party “VVD” where they have expressed their respect to Muslims in the country. Parliamentarian from this party, who as well is the head of the Committee on education, disproved the fact of liberals having a war against Islam. These words were responses to the claims of Yan de Reas, who stated that based on the remarks made by Tzalm one can think he is in the state of war against Islam. After the victory of the Right Party during the general elections, Netherlands became a second European state, where ultra rightists government, having anti-immigration position changed government predominantly consisting of representatives of the left party. In 2004 the Danish government announced about intending changes to the immigration regulations of the country. Previously it was easier for foreign religious figures, particularly for Imams to receive residence permit in Denmark. Hence, according to the statements of the Prime Minister Andersa foga Rasmessena the government came to a decision of having new requirements (having special education and living expenses) for immigrants living in the country. In Germany in 2004 only 1% out of the 3,5 million Muslims were members of organizations threatening the national safety of the country. This data was published by the German secret service. The report, prepared by the internal secret service of Germany (BVS) was recently published in the press. According to the report there are 24 organizations of this type operating in Germany, which have 30 950 members, less than 350 members as it was in 2002.”However, insignificant decrease of the organizations members does not mean they do not pose threat to the national safety”, - comes in the report. Turkish organizations have 27 300 members the remaining are from the countries of Arab world and other Islamic countries. In the report the organization is accused in “duplicity” - “openly calling its members for tolerance and integration into the German society, while during close sessions leaders of “Turkish Milli Guruc” are inclining the members towards the opposite attitude”. The Minister of Internal Affairs of Germany Otto Shealy called this organization “dangerous” and assured that the police will attentively track its` operation. The document which was submitted by the secret service as well includes information on “Muslim brotherhood”. This organization with a head-quarter in Muinkhen is controlling a considerable amount of mosques and Islamic centers of Germany. The “Islamic Assembly” group as well is mentioned in the report, which is states that the leading roles in Muslim communities must be played by the representatives of the younger generation, who were born in Germany. Among other organizations mentioned in the report are “Al-Nahda”movement, organized by Tunisians, the Algerian “National rescue front”, the Lebanese “Hezbollah” and Palestinian movement “Khamas” In December 2003, German president Johansson Ray stated that Muslims of Germany must not be treated as second-class people underlining that they have became integral part of German society long ago. His statement was made after the results of Bellfield University research demonstrated that Islamophobia is raising in Germany. Two years ago American scientists for the first time attempted to conduct a research on terrorists’ action in Western states using quantitative methods. Thus, Robert Leykin R. and Steven Brook from Washington Research Institute of Nixon Center came to unexpected conclusion: they have found out that the biggest Islamic terrorist group in Europe and North America appeared in West, not in the Middle East or in developing countries. Furthermore, they have revealed connection between terrorism and migration: the majority of terrorists operating in West are immigrants. The research was based on the data prepared by the scientists, which included 373 terrorists who were accused through the time period of 1993-2004, charged by court or murdered in North America and Western Europe. First results of the researches were included scientists in 2005 to the document which has not been published earlier. The data is comprised of open sources: mass media reports, governmental and judicial documents, publications of research institutes and non-governmental organizations. Only members of transnational sunni n. terroristic groups were included to the data, which can be found at “Al-Qaida” network. Palestine groups or for instance the Lebanese “Hezbollah” were not considered whereas their actions were evaluated as locally targeted against Israel. (Zunger, Anti-immigrant sentiment and the radicalization of the Muslim population in Western Europe, 2007) Interesting summaries were made on the basis of this data. Thus, the well-known idea of considering terrorism mainly the problem of Middle East was disproved. Less than half of the terrorist registered by Leyken and Brook were born in Middle East. 41% has citizenship of either European states or the US, while 36% are citizens of Maghreb countries. Only 17% of terrorists were born in main Arab countries (authors include to this list Egypt, Iraq, Jordan, Syria, Lebanon, Israel and countries of Arabian Peninsula). 3% were born in Asian countries as Malaysia, Indonesia,, India and Pakistan. The scientist as well had an attempt to clarify how terrorists come to the Western countries. However, the collected data do not give a clear and full picture, whereas only in 55% of cases (for 206 people out of 373) there is information on ways immigrants entered the country. Nevertheless, according to the research illegal entrance to the country, which is constantly controlled by the western countries` authorities is not affecting on the possibility of the immigrant becoming a terrorist. Only 6% of terrorists entered the country illegally. 33% had visas, in most cases these were tourist or student visa. 23% received refuge in western countries and 38% had citizenship of European states. It is worth mentioning that 9% of terrorists were converted to Islam from other religions and it is considerably high percentage. In scientists view, most of all Great Britain, Spain, Italy and Belgium are radicalized. The percentage of terrorists in this country is comparatively higher than the percentage of Muslims living there out of the total number of Muslims in Europe. Experts, making report in 2005 to the subcommittee of the US Congress House representatives on European issues, stated that due to the concurrence of circumstances the biggest threat to the safety of the US is coming from Islamic terrorist cells in Europe. Bergen P who have written sufficient amount of materials on “Al-Qaida” and other terrorist groups as well agrees with the above statement. According to him, the rising alienation tendency of Muslims in European countries is being outlined which is a positive trend for recruiters of terrorist groups. Thus, it can be summarized that Europe is a Christian continent. Religion as spiritual value is an important integral part of European identity. The European identity played vital role in European integration. The integration is supported by European identity. The problem of Muslims integration into the European society is directly connected with the issue Turkey entrance into the EU. Analyzing the reasons behind international terrorism rise in EU one can refer to three spheres: social, religious and political. The fact that international terrorism in Europe- is to some extend a reaction to the aggressive attitude of Christians when interfering into the sphere of Islamic world influence must be admitted. This is a confrontation of Islam and Christianity. The European public opinion about Muslim immigrants cardinally transformed after the events of September 11, 2001. The following acts of terror intensified the situation: native Europeans are holding to a stern line of behavior towards Muslims. It is difficult to foresee even theoretically the possible outcomes of Muslims integration in Europe if politicians of the EU member states do not undertake constructive measures on easing of the situation with Muslim immigrants, if the immigration policy will not changed practically, not formally and if effective conditions for integration of immigrants into the European reality will not be provided. Conclusion This thesis covers the analysis of the process of Muslim immigration to the member states of the European Union and its influence on the European identity today. The following results have been obtained from the analysis: - It was demonstrated that in Europe the process of aging of the native population is occurring. Comparing the natural and emigrational population growth in the EU member states one can state that currently the insignificant natural growth of European population is compensated by inflow of immigrants (including Muslims); - Historically, Muslim immigration was not welcomed in Europe which saw in the immigrants a cheap labor force: racism was present, and with the start of economical recession in 1970`s of the XX century and deceleration of European economy the problems increased. As a consequence of this situation, so-called closed zones of habitation were established, where habitants at first were not willing to assimilate and adapt to the new European order but trying to preserve their identity, national traditions, culture and religion. In many European states national enclaves of immigrants are formed, which were not adapted to the secular European society, while their interests are more often contradicting with the laws and traditions of the country of residence, creating tangible socio-political imbalance; - The fact that immigration (including that of Muslims) is constant factor in future Europe must inevitably be admitted. The Muslim population of Europe is becoming a considerable factor of European life, and in perspective this role will increase; - Although the Muslim immigrants are of low level of employment rate, different resources and data indicate the occurrence discrimination in relation to Muslim immigrants in the sphere of labor due to their ethnic origin; - The lack of effective strategy of social adaption and integration of Muslim immigrants into the European society upholds intensification of social and ethno-political relationship between the population of European states and immigrants, growth of anti-Islamic actions in the society and xenophobia; - A need to change in the national legislation towards making it more tough on the conditions of compromise with compliance of civil rights to the extend, when they do not contradict with national interests and cultural traditions of the European states is obvious; - Though the European states are obliged to coordinate their national policy with the necessity of developing multicultural strategy, this policy has to balance keeping the European National identity with interests of immigrants; - The issue of Muslim immigrants` active participation in the social life of Europe and decision-making process which in one way or another affects the European community, creates a new wave of European Islam, or “euroislamization”, and that in its turn changes the contents of the European society. - First to protest against the early practiced emigrational policy of the EU states` governments, and now to strengthen their status, Muslim immigrants unified in public-civil organizations: The Federation of Islamic Organizations in Europe, The Islamic Organizations Union in Europe, The Islamic Organizations Union in France etc. All the existing unions are aiming at becoming full-fledged representatives of Muslims in Europe; those which have such status are aiming at corresponding to their status fully. Public-civil movements and organizations are coming out for healthy integration of Muslim immigrants into the European society without losing cultural and religious identity as well as for active participation in idea-political, social and cultural life; - Since the number of such organizations and Muslim presence grows, the speculations on the Muslim immigration issue and bias among the Europeans increases, often due to the wrong images of mass media; - it was demonstrated that , lack of integral strategy in relation to Muslim immigrants initiated formulation of public-civil organizations, standing for integration of Muslim immigrants into European society without loss of their cultural and religious identity, as well as for active participation in idea-political, public and cultural life; - the reasons of religious problems occurrence in EU members states are studied; the need of ecumenism policy for the purpose of preventing international conflicts on the ethnical base between the aboriginal Europeans and Muslim immigrants is shown, the necessity of bringing in line legislation and close coordination under the framework of EU for preventing clash of two religions is exposed; - the interconnection of EU member states perception of international terrorism as a threat to the safety, European identity and official policy towards Muslim immigrants is determined; the need of implementing integral emigrational policy of the EU member states governments and close coordination under the framework of EU for preventing clash of two religions and international terrorism is revealed. In December 2001 the European Council adopted the “Charter of Principal rights” according to which EU “is build on the inalienable universal values - freedom, equality, solidarity and respect of human dignity”. “EU is respecting diversity of cultures, religions and languages” (Charter of Principal rights, Article 22). The issue of social adaption is predominant for Muslim immigrants form the very beginning of their stay in new country. Development of strategy for adaption of Muslims to the local conditions must be implemented by the governments of EU member states. Otherwise, international conflicts on an base of ethnics between native Europeans and Muslim immigrants are inevitable, which already occurred in France, Great Britain and other European states. The modern world, new relations, development of economy are stimulating Christians and Muslims to come to a dialogue. The principal of ecumenism is topical as never before, the convergence principal of three great religions for transition to constructive interaction. This, certainly, does not mean that Muslims and Christians must decline their views in favor of the world. However, they must proceed from the perspectives, from the modern realities and must realize that this world needs to be more tolerable and moral. Integration and tolerance are a mutual process. This must be kept in mind, Muslims and representatives of other religions must learn it, if they are willing to live in peace in a civilized world. As an example we can refer to Kazakhstan, which has became a place of worthy and peaceful dialogue for world cultures and traditional religions. This dialogue promotes peaceful co-existence and fruitful cooperation of people, which results in rising significance of mutual values, making relationship between governments of different confessions deeper, strengthening the role of state in society. Religion, which rehabilitated its rights upon the republic gained independence, gradually becoming one of the most significant part of spiritual culture of Kazakh nation, important social institute, aiming at re-establishment of lost bonds of time and ethno-cultural identity. Supporting the spiritual development of nation, the state gives substantial consideration to combating with radical displays of religious activation, preventing formation of sects and pseudo-religious communities, as well as international discrimination John Iowan Paul II visit to Kazakhstan in 2001. Two congresses of world and traditional religious leaders were conducted in Kazakhstan (2003, 2006 years). Participants of the first congress, guided by the slogan “ From religious dialogue to convergence of civilizations”, adopted Declaration, where it is emphasized that religions must tend to cooperation, following tolerance and positive mutual perception as most important mechanisms of nations peaceful co-existence (Europe: the State and Public Opinion, 2007). The boundaries of major world civilizations are going through Euro Asian space. Availability of secular and spiritual principals makes modern history of Kazakhstan a unique example of solving problems, occurring on the basis of religion and peaceful co-existence of nations and nationalities, representatives of various religions. The example of Kazakhstani policy on the creation of multiethnic society has many positive directions: that is mutual respect among the ethnicities and nationalities, religious tolerance with the secular concept of the state, and the administrative punishment for any assault on the basis of ethnic-religious context. Moreover, the vary history of Kazakhstan depicts the vast migration of different peoples within the Soviet Union: Turkish, Caucasians, Ukrainians and many others, who found their place in Kazakhstan. Inhabiting the republic during the Soviet period, these nationalities did not much immigrate to their newly appeared independent states, willing to stay in Kazakhstan. Moreover, the ethnicities established their own political organ – The Assemble of the Nations of Kazakhstan, representing the interests and problems of these nations. However, the most important part of this policy is the concept of considering these ethnicities as a part of one nation – the Kazakhstanis. 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