Indonesia

PEOPLE’S WAR OF INDONESIA 1. Introduction. The struggle by Indonesian nationalists to free themselves from Dutch colonial rule during the period 1945 to 1949 stands out as a classic model of a ‘peoples war’. The mobilization and politicization of the masses behind a revolutionary ideology, skilful exploitation of international opinion and conduct of asymmetric warfare all combined to bring to an end over three hundred years of colonial rule in a relatively short period of time. All of these facets of warfare are as valid today as they were half a century ago. Similarly for students of military history, conduct of the Dutch counter insurgency campaign and, in particular, its inability to achieve political victory despite a relative material and technological superiority and some stunning military successes offers some valuable lessons. In the next 30 to 35 minutes I along with my team will attempt to draw out those lessons and where appropriate offer some analysis on their contemporary applicability. 2. Before beginning though it may be pertinent to identify those factors that ran through this campaign which we consider most relevant for analysis and potentially applicable to other movements and campaigns. a. The need for popular support or at least a neutral operational environment. b. The importance of a sound ideological base. c. Sound leadership. d. The need to gain international support, or, at least, avoid International enmity. e. The means to translate military actions into political success. 3. Part of our aim, therefore will be to show where the Indonesian nationalists were able ,by design or accident, to achieve these while the colonial power was not. 4. PART – I DEMOGRAPHY / HISTORICAL APPRAISAL Demography 6. Land. Indonesia is the largest archipelago in the world. It consists of 5 main islands and about 30 smaller archipelagos totaling of 17,000 islands and islets of which about 6500 are inhabited. The Indonesian archipelago forms a cross road between two oceans, the Pacific and Indian Oceans and bridge between two continents, Australia and Asia. Due to its strategic position, therefore, Indonesian cultural, social, political and economic patterns have always been conditioned by its geographic position. The territory of Republic of Indonesia stretches from 6 degrees 08 minutes north latitude to 11 degrees 15 minutes south latitude. The estimated area of the country is 5193250 square kilometers which consists of a land territory of 2,027,087 square kilometers and a sea territory of 3,166,163 square kilometers. Indonesia’s five main islands are Sumatra, Kalimantan, Java, Sulawesi and Irian Jaya . 7. Climate and Weather. Indonesia’s climate and weather is characterized by equatorial double rainy season. The climate changes every six months i.e. the dry season (June to September) and the rainy season (December to March). The temperature in Indonesia can be classified as follows :- a. An average temperature of 27 degree Centigrade for beaches. b. An average temperature of 25 degree Centigrade for inland and mountains. c. An average temperature of 22 degree Centigrade for mountains depending upon their heights. 8. The country is pre-dominantly mountainous. There are about 400 volcanoes, of which 100 are active. Mountains higher than 9000 feet are found on the island of Sumatra. Historical Appraisal 9. Ancient Times. It is believed that Indonesia must have existed and was linked with the present Asian mainland, during the Pleistocene period ( 4 million BC ). This period was also closely related to the first appearance of the Homonids. It was in this period that the “Java Man” must have been inhabiting that part of the world now known as Indonesia. It was also during this period (3000-500 BC) that Indonesia was inhabited by Sub-Mongoloid migrants from Asia who later inter-married with the indigenous people. Later still (1000 BC) inter-marriages occurred with Indo-Arian migrants from the south-Asian sub-continent of India. The first Indian migrants came primarily from Gujarat in Southeast India during the first Christian era. 10. Hindu Kingdom. Many well-organized kingdoms with a high degree of civilization were ruled by indigenous kings who had adopted the Hindu or Buddhist religion. This is why this period in history is called the Period of Hindu Kingdoms. It lasted from ancient times to the 16th Century AD. Because the culture and civilization, which emanated from the Hindu and Buddhist religions, were synchronized with the local cultural elements, the period was also referred to as the Hindu-Indonesian period. Indian culture and customs were introduced, such as the system of government in a monarchy, the ancestry system, the organization of military troops, literature, music and dances, architecture, religious practices and rituals, and even the division of laborers into castes or varnas. The Hindu literary works known as Vedas and the "Mahabharata" and "Ramayana" epics were also introduced through the wayang, or shadow-play performance, which is still very popular in many parts of present day Indonesia. 11. Islamic Kingdoms. Muslim merchants from Gujarat and Persia began visiting Indonesia in the 13th Century and established trade links between this country and India and Persia. Along with trade, they propagated Islam among the Indonesian people, particularly along the coastal areas of Java, like Demak. At a later stage they even influenced and converted Hindu kings to Islam, the first being the Sultan of Demak. This Muslim Sultan later spread Islam westwards to Cirebon and Banten, and eastward along the northern coast of Java to the kingdom of Gresik. In the end, he brought the downfall of the powerful kingdom of Majapahit (1293-1520). 12. Portuguese In Indonesia. In their search for spices, the Portuguese arrived in Indonesia in 1511, after their conquest of the Islamic kingdom of Malacca on the Malay Peninsula. They were followed by the Spaniards. Both began to propagate Christianity and were most successful in Minahasa and Maluku, also known as the Moluccas. The Sultan of Aceh in Sumatra, the Sultan of Demak in Java and the Sultan of Ternate in the Maluku islands joined forces in trying to ward off the Portuguese. At that time the power and sovereignty of Ternate sultanate was recognized by more than 72 islands, including the island of Timor. In 1570, the Portuguese succeeded in killing the Sultan of Ternate, Khairun. However, his successor, Sultan Baabullah, besieged the Portuguese fortress at Ternate. Baabullah then allied himself with the Dutch to further confront the Portuguese and Spaniards. In 1651 the Dutch invaded Kupang in Western Timor. Despite the Dutch presence in Timor, the formal and precise definition of the territories controlled by the two colonial powers did not take place until more than 200 years after the Dutch conquest of Kupang. It was only on 20 April 1859, the Dutch concluded a treaty with Portugal to divide Timor into their respective control : The Dutch occupied the Western part and Portugal the eastern part of the island. From that time Portugal could secure a full control over East Timor until it left the region in 1975. 13. Dutch Colonialism. The Dutch East India Company founded in 1602, competed with the Portuguese and the English for the archipelago’s trade. The Dutch Governor-General Jan Pieterszoon Coen arrived Java in the early 17th century and established Batavia (now Jakarta) as the Dutch Headquarters. The Dutch captured Malacca in 1641, but Malacca no longer had complete control of the spice trade to Europe. Dutch interference in Mataram’s affairs led to the kingdom’s division, in 1755, into the principalities of Surakarta and Yogyakarta. In the Moluccas, the Dutch extended their trading rights into political control. Elsewhere in the eastern islands, most local rulers retained their internal autonomy but were drawn into special relationships with the Dutch. Financial mismanagement and a decline in trade brought the East India Company to bankruptcy, however, and in 1799 it was dissolved. The Dutch government then assumed control of the company’s Indonesian possessions. 14. British Temporary Rule. In 1814 the British came to Indonesia and built Fort York in Bengkulu on the west coast of Sumatra. It was later renamed Fort Marlborough. During the Napoleonic wars in Europe when Holland was occupied by France, Indonesia fell under the rule of the British East India Company (1811-1816). After the fall of Napoleon, and the end of the French occupation of Holland the British and Dutch signed a convention in London on August 13, 1814, in which it was agreed that Dutch colonial possessions dating from 1803 onwards should be returned to the Dutch Administration in Batavia. Thus, the Indonesian archipelago was recovered from the British in 1815. 15. Return of the Dutch Rule. Both the British and later the Dutch tried to centralize and reform Java’s administration. The Dutch wavered between opening the area to individual enterprise and reverting to a monopoly system. From 1825 to 1830 the Javanese prince Diponegoro led a guerrilla revolt against the Dutch. The wars, which left as many as 200,000 dead, cost the Dutch huge sums of money and they ultimately decided for a government monopoly. In the late 19th century the Dutch were engaged in a 30-year war with Aceh and Bali, which ended in 1908 in the former and 1909 in the latter. By this time, Sulawesi, the Moluccas, the Lesser Sunda Islands, and most of Borneo had also been brought under firmer Dutch control. PART – II INDONESIAN NATIONALIST MOVEMENTS / INDONESIAN NATIONAL REVOLUTION Indonesian Nationalist Movements 16. Nationalist Organisations and Movements. In the succeeding paragraphs the details of the Indonesian Nationalist Organisations and movements is discussed:- a. Boedi Oetomo (Noble Conduct-1908). When all regional wars of independence failed, Indonesian nationalists began thinking of a more-organized struggle against Dutch colonialism. The move began with the founding of Boedi Oetomo, literally meaning "noble conduct," on May 20, 1908. This organization of Indonesian intellectuals was initially set up for educational purposes but later turned into politics. b. Sarekat Dagang Islam (1911). In 1911 the Society of Muslim Entrepreneurs ‘Sarekat Dagang Islam’ was founded by Haji Samanhudi and others which was aimed at encouraging and sponsoring the interest of Indonesian business within the Dutch East Indies. However, in 1912 this organization of middle class businessmen turned into a political party and was renamed “Sarekat Islam” led by Haji Agoes Salim and others. c. Muhammadiyah (1912). In 1912 a progressive Muslim organization “Muhammadiyah” was established by K.H. Akhmad Dahlan in Yogyakarta aimed at social and economic reforms. In December of the same year, “Partai Indonesia” was founded by Douwes Dekker. The objective of the party was to strive for complete independence of Indonesia from the Dutch. d. The Powerless People's Council or Volksraad. In 1916 Sarikat Islam held its first convention in Bandung and resolved the demand for self-government for Indonesia in cooperation with the Dutch. When Sarikat Islam demanded a share in the legislative power in the colony, the Dutch responded by setting up the Volksraad in 1918 which was virtually a powerless people's council with an advisory status. Under the pressure of the social unrest in the Netherlands at the end of World War I, the Dutch promised to grant self-government to Indonesians. This was known as the "November promise." It was a promise that was never met. In 1923 deteriorating economic conditions and increasing labour strikes prompted the colonial government to put severe restrictions on Indonesian civil liberties and make amendments to the colonial laws and penal codes. Freedom of assembly, speech and expression in writing was restricted. e. Growth Of Indonesian Organizations(1922 Onwards).Despite the political restrictions, on July 3, 1922 Ki Hajar Dewantoro founded Taman Siswa, an organization to promote national education. In 1924 the Indonesian Students Association, "Perhimpunan Mahasiswa Indonesia," was formed by Dr. Mohammad Hatta, Dr. Sukiman and others. This organization became a driving force of the nationalist movement to gain independence. f. Indonesian Nationalist Party (1927). In July 1927, Soekarno, Sartono and others formed the Indonesian Nationalist Party (PNI), which adopted Bahasa Indonesia as the official language. This party adopted a militant policy of non-cooperation with the Government as the result of a fundamental conflict of interest between Indonesian nationalism and Dutch colonialism. g. All-Indonesia Nationalist Movement. In 1927, it was organized by Indonesian youth, to replace earlier organizations, which had been based on regionalism; such as "Young Java", "Young Sumatra" and "Young Ambon". On October 28, 1929, delegates to the second Indonesian Youth Congress in Jakarta pledged allegiance to "one country, one nation and one language, Indonesia." Concerned about the growing national awareness of freedom, the colonial authorities arrested the PNI leader, Soekarno, in December 1929. This touched off widespread protests by Indonesians. In 1930 the world was in the grip of an economic and monetary crisis. The severe impact of the crisis was felt in the Indies, a raw material producing country. The colonial government responded with a strict balanced budget policy that aggravated economic and social conditions. Soekarno was released in September 1931 but exiled again in August 1933. He remained in Dutch custody until the Japanese invasion in 1942. h. Persatuan Bangsa Indonesia (Indonesian Union Party-1931). In January 1931, Dr. Soetomo founded Persatuan Bangsa Indonesia, the Indonesian Unity Party. Its objective was to improve the social status of the Indonesian people. j. Partai Indonesia (Indonesian Party-1931). In April 1931, PNI was abandoned. A new party was formed by Sartono, and named Partai Indonesia, the Indonesian Party. Its basis was nationalism, its line was independence. The following year Sutan Syahrir and Mohammad Hatta and other nationalist leaders were arrested and banished until 1942 . k. Partai Indonesia Raya. In 1935, Soetomo merged Persatuan Bangsa Indonesia and Boedi Oetomo to form Partai Indonesia Raya (Parindra). Its fundamental goal was the independence of Great Indonesia. In July 1936, Sutardjo submitted to the "Volksraad" a petition calling for greater autonomy for Indonesia. This petition was flatly rejected by the Dutch-dominated Council. In 1939 the All Indonesian Political Federation, GAPI, called for the establishment of a full-fledged Indonesian parliament. This demand was rejected by the Government in Holland in 1940. 17. Nationalist Leaders Of Indonesia. The two most important leaders who emerged during the liberation of Indonesia are:- a. Sukarno. Sukarno Sukarno was the president of Indonesia from 1945 until 1968, when right wing military leaders took power after a failed Communist coup. Sukarno was born in the city of Surabaya in eastern Java. At the time, Java and the rest of Indonesia were under Dutch colonial control. Although brought up in the traditional Javanese cultural world, Sukarno was educated in modern Dutch colonial schools. In 1921 he entered the Bandung Institute of Technology to study architecture, graduating in 1926. Sukarno had been increasingly involved in nationalist politics since his teens, when he had boarded in the house of H. O. S. Tjokroaminoto, a leading nationalist politician. It was in Bandung that he decided his future lay in politics, not architecture. In 1927 Sukarno confounded the Indonesian Nationalist Party (Partai Nasional Indonesia, or PNI) and became its first leader. The goal of the party was to achieve independence for Indonesia through popular struggle against the Dutch. A skilled public speaker, Sukarno quickly drew a mass following for the PNI. In 1929 the Dutch jailed him for being a threat to public order, and the PNI collapsed in his absence. Released in 1931, Sukarno resumed his political activity, but he was arrested again in 1933 and exiled, first to the island of Flores and then to Sumatra. By the time of his exile, he was Indonesia’s leading nationalist politician. When Japan invaded and occupied Indonesia in 1942, during World War II, Sukarno returned to Jakarta and worked with the Japanese regime. He argued later that his collaboration with the Japanese enabled him to advance the cause of Indonesian independence and protect the Indonesian people from the worst excesses of the occupation. In 1944 a committee was established to prepare for Indonesian independence, and Sukarno was a leading member of the committee. On July 1, 1945, Sukarno delivered an important speech to the committee urging the adoption of the Panca Sila (Five Principles) as the ideological basis of the new state. The five principles were nationalism, internationalism (or humanitarianism), democracy, social justice, and belief in God. b. Dr Mohamad Hatta. Hatta, Muhammad (1902-1980), Indonesian nationalist leader and vice president. Born in Bukittinggi, Sumatra, he studied in the Netherlands, where he obtained a doctorate in economics in 1932. Returning to Indonesia, he became active in the Indonesian nationalist movement, was arrested by the Dutch in 1934, and was imprisoned on the island of Bandanaira; he was released by the Japanese in 1942. After World War II, Hatta became vice president under Sukarno of the Indonesian Republic they declared. When the Dutch returned, refusing to recognize the nationalist regime, a bitter war for independence ensued. By 1948 Hatta was prime minister of the struggling government.. As vice president in the resulting federal regime of Indonesia, he disagreed more and more with President Sukarno's policies, and he resigned in 1956. After Sukarno's fall in 1966, Hatta served the new government in various advisory roles in economic and financial matters. Indonesian National Revolution 18. Japanese Occupation. After their attack on Pearl Harbor in Hawaii, the Japanese forces moved southwards to conquer several Southeast Asian countries. After Singapore had fallen, they invaded the Dutch East Indies and the colonial army surrendered in March 1942.Soekarno and Hatta were released from their detention. The Japanese began their propaganda campaign for what they called "Great East Asia Co-prosperity". But Indonesian people soon realized that it was a camouflage for Japanese imperialism in place of Dutch colonialism. To further the cause of Indonesia's independence, Soekarno and Hatta appeared to cooperate with the Japanese authorities. In reality, however, Indonesian nationalist leaders went underground and masterminded insurrections in Blitar, Tasikmalaya, Indramayu, Sumatra and Kalimantan. Due to the demanding situations of the on going war and the increasing Indonesian insurrections, the Japanese ultimately gave in to allow the red-and-white flag to fly as the Indonesian national flag. Recognition of "Indonesia Raya" as the national anthem and Bahasa Indonesia as the national language followed. Hence, the youth's pledge of 1928 was fulfilled. After persistent demands, the Japanese finally agreed to place the civil administration of the country into Indonesian hands. Post War Greater Indonesian Policy 19. Unlike Burma and the Philippines, Indonesia was not granted formal independence by the Japanese in 1943. No Indonesian representative was sent to the Greater East Asia Conference in Tokyo in November 1943. But as the war became more desperate, Japan announced in September 1944 that not only Java but the entire archipelago would become independent. This announcement was a tremendous vindication of the seemingly collaborative policies of Sukarno and Hatta. In March 1945, the Investigating Committee for Preparatory Work for Indonesian Independence (BPUPKI) was organised, and delegates came not only from Java but also from Sumatra and the eastern archipelago to decide the constitution of the new state. The committee wanted the new nation's territory to include not only the Netherlands Indies but also Portuguese Timor and British North Borneo and the Malay Peninsula. Thus the basis for a postwar Greater Indonesian policy, pursued by Sukarno in the 1950s and 60s, was established. The committee also chose Sukarno, who favored a unitary state, and Hatta, who wanted a federal system, as president and vice president. Pancasila as State Philosophy 20. On June 1, 1945, Sukarno gave a speech outlining the Pancasila; the five guiding principles of the Indonesian nation. Much as he had used the concept of Marhaenism to create a common denominator for the masses in the 1930s, so he used the Pancasila concept to provide a basis for a unified, independent state. The five principles are :- a. 1st Sila. Belief in the one supreme God. b. 2nd Sila. Just and Civilized Humanity. c. 3rd Sila. National unity”The unity of Indonesia”. d. 4th Sila. Democracy led by wisdom of deliberation among representatives. e. 5th Sila. Social justice for the whole of the people of Indonesia. 21. On August 15, 1945, Japan surrendered. The Indonesian leadership, under pressure by radical youth groups (the pemuda), were obliged to move quickly. With the cooperation of individual Japanese navy and army officers, Sukarno and Hatta formally declared the nation's independence on August 17 at the former's residence in Jakarta, raised the red and white national flag and sang the new nation's national anthem, Indonesia Raya that means the Greater Indonesia. Following day the new constitution was also promulgated. Emerging Scenario and the Potential Interests 22. The Indonesian Republic's prospects were highly uncertain. The Dutch, determined to reoccupy their colony, castigated Sukarno and Hatta as collaborators with the Japanese and the Republic of Indonesia as a creation of Japanese fascism. But the Dutch, devastated by the Nazi occupation, lacked the resources to reassert their authority. The archipelago, thus, came under the jurisdiction of Admiral Earl Louis Mountbatten, the supreme Allied Commander in Southeast Asia. 23. In November 1945, through the efforts of Syahrir, the new republic was given a parliamentary form of government. Syahrir, who had refused to cooperate with the wartime Japanese regime and had campaigned hard against retaining occupation-era institutions, such as Peta, was appointed the first prime minister and headed three short-lived cabinets until he was ousted by his deputy, Amir Syarifuddin, in June 1947. PART III THE WAR OF INDEPENDENCE 24. The Republic of Indonesia first saw light on August 17, 1945, when its independence was proclaimed just days after the Japanese surrender to the Allies. Pancasila became the ideological and philosophical basis of the Republic, and on August 18, 1945 the Constitution was adopted as the basic law of the country. Following the provisions of the Constitution, the country is headed by a President who is also the Chief Executive. He is assisted by a Vice-President and a cabinet of ministers. The sovereignty of the people rests with the People's Consultative Assembly (MPR). Hence, the President is accountable to the MPR. The legislative power is vested in the House of Representatives (DPR). Other institutions of the state are the Supreme Court, the Supreme Advisory Council and the Supreme Audit Board. Soekarno became the first President and Chief Executive, and Mohammad Hatta, the first Vice-President of the Republic. On September 5, 1945 the first cabinet was formed. The sequence of the events as they occurred is discussed in the succeeding paragraphs. a. The War. The infant republic was soon faced with military threats to its very existence. British troops landed in Indonesia as a contingent of the Allied Forces to disarm the Japanese. Dutch troops also seized this opportunity to land in the country, but for a different purpose, - namely, to regain control of the former East Indies. At the beginning they were assisted by British troops under General Christison, a fact later admitted by Lord Louis Mountbatten, the Commander of the Allied Forces in Southeast Asia based in Myanmar. In fact, the British troops were officially only assigned to the task of repatriating Allied prisoners of war and internees. On November 10, 1945, fierce fighting broke out between British troops and Indonesian freedom fighters in which the British lost Brigadier Mallaby. As a result, the British turned to an all-out combat from the sea, air and land. The newly-recruited army of the Republic soon realized the superiority of the British forces and withdrew from urban battles. They subsequently formed guerrilla units and fought together with armed groups of the people. The gradual build up of Dutch forces in the country allowed them to extend their influence from the regions handed over to them by the British into the surrounding countryside. The Dutch belief that a rapid reconquest of the region was fundamental to their post war economic recovery led to them mounting the biggest expeditionary operation in their history. Faced with their relative military weakness and in light of adverse international opinion the Dutch at first agreed to compromise with the nationalists and enter into negotiations on the question of the regions future political and constitutional status. b. The Indonesian Question in the United Nations. The war in Indonesia posed a threat to international peace and security. In the spirit of article 24 of the United Nations' Charter, the question of Indonesia was officially brought before the Security Council by Jacob Malik of the Soviet Unions. Soon afterwards, on February 10, 1946, the first official meeting of Indonesian and Dutch representatives took place under the chairmanship of Sir Archibald Clark Kerr. But the freedom fight continued and Dutch military aggressions met with stiff resistance from Indonesian troops. The Indonesian Government conducted a diplomatic offensive against the Dutch. With the good offices of Lord Killearn of Great Britain, Indonesian and Dutch representatives met at Linggarjati in West Java. The negotiations resulted in the de facto recognition by the Dutch of Indonesia's sovereignty over Java, Sumatra and Madura. The Linggarjati Agreement was initiated on November 1946 and signed on March 25, 1947. But the agreement was a violation of Indonesia's independence proclamation of August 17, 1945, which implied sovereignty over the whole territory of the Republic. As such, it met with the widespread disapproval of the people. Hence, guerrilla fighting continued, bringing heavy pressure on Dutch troops. In July 1947 the Dutch felt sufficiently strong to begin to move into republican strongholds. The offensive although militarily successful and carried out with minimal loss was, however, put to end by the signing of the Renville Agreement on January 17, 1948 due to mounting international disaproval. The negotiation was initiated by India and Australia and took place under the auspices of the UN Security Council. It was during these critical moments that the Indonesian Communist Party (PKI) stabbed the newly- proclaimed Republic of Indonesia in the back by declaring the formation of the "Indonesian People's Republic" in Madiun, East Java. Muso led an attempt to overthrow the Government, but this was quickly stamped out and he was killed. In violation of the Renville agreement, on December 19, 1948, the Dutch launched their second military action aimed at eradicating the last republican stronghold and taking the capital of the Republic and seizing the main nationalist leaders. Although militarily successful and encountering limited popular opposition the operation failed to crush the nationalists and a caretaker Government, with headquarters in Bukittinggi, West Sumatra, was set up under Syafruddin Prawiranegara. In a similar vein to their previous operation international opinion proved an effective check on their designs and on the initiative of Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru of India, a meeting of 19 nations was convened in New Delhi that produced a resolution for submission to the United Nations, pressing for total Dutch surrender of sovereignty to the Republic of Indonesia by January 1, 1950. It also pressed for the release of all Indonesian detainees and the return of territories seized during the military actions. On January 28, 1949, the UN Security Council adopted a resolution to establish a cease-fire, the release of Republican leaders and their Yogyakarta. The Dutch, however, were adamant and continued to occupy the city of Yogyakarta by ignoring of the Republican Government and the National Army. They deliberately issued a false statement to the world that the Government and the army of the Republic of Indonesia no longer existed. To prove that the Dutch claim was a mere fabrication, Lieutenant Colonel Soeharto led an all-out attack on the Dutch troops in Yogyakarta on March 1, 1949, and occupied the city for several hours. This offensive is recorded in Indonesia's history as "the first of March all-out attack" to show to the world at the time that the Republic and its military were not dead. Consequently, on May 7, 1949, an agreement was signed by Mohammad Roem of Indonesia and Van Rooyen of the Netherlands, to end hostilities, restore the Republican Government in Yogyakarta, and to hold further negotiations at a round table conference under the auspices of the United Nations. c. World Recognition and Indonesia's Sovereignty. The Round Table conference was opened in the Hague on August 23, 1949, under the auspices of the UN. It was concluded on November 2 with an agreement that Holland was to recognize the sovereignty of the Republic of Indonesia. On December 27, 1949 the Dutch East Indies ceased to exist. It now became the sovereign Federal Republic of Indonesia with a federal constitution. The constitution, inter alia, provided for a parliamentary system in which the cabinet was responsible to Parliament. The question of sovereignty over Irian Jaya, formerly West New Guinea, was suspended for further negotiations between Indonesia and the Netherlands. This issue remained a perpetual source of conflict between the two countries for more than 13 years. On September 28, 1950, Indonesia became a member of the United Nations. d. The Unitary State of the Republic of Indonesia. On August 17, 1950 the Unitary State of the Republic on Indonesia, as originally proclaimed, was restored. However, the liberal democratic system of government was retained whereby the cabinet would be accountable to the House of Representatives. This was a source of political instability with frequent changes in government. In the absence of a stable government, it was utterly impossible for a newly-independent state to embark on any development program. With the return of the unitary state, the President once again assumed the duties of Chief Executive and the Mandatary of the Provisional People's Consultative Assembly. He is assisted by a Vice-President and a cabinet of his own choosing. The Executive is not responsible to the House of Representatives. PART IV ANALYSIS AND LESSONS LEARNT Analysis 25. General. An analysis of the Dutch failure to defeat the nationalist movement in the Indonesian archipelago can be divided into six main areas which are:- a. Historical, political and economic policies. b. Impact of Japanese occupation c. Dutch Postwar Military and Political Weakness. d. Impact of Japanese defeat. e. Impact of British occupation. f. Impact of international opinion. 26. Historical, Political and Economic Policies. The nature of Dutch colonial rule and economic exploitation in her East Indies colonies was a significant contributor to her later failure to regain control of the region following the defeat of Japan in 1945. Unlike other colonial powers the Dutch had done little to integrate her subject population into the colonial administration and had effectively disbarred their participation in public and political life. While superficially buttressing Dutch rule this practice effectively blocked the development of a political elite within the subject population that identified itself with the colonial administration or with the Netherlands as a whole. The essentially exploitative Dutch economic policies did little to tie the region into a mutually beneficial economic relationship with the colonial power, as was the case for the British in Malaya, or by economic development to endear the subject population to the colonial power. In effect Dutch colonial rule was, despite the length of her involvement in the region, weakly superimposed on the region and had done little to foster any strong political, cultural or economic ties between the population and the colonial power. 27. Impact of Japanese Occupation. The effect of the rapid Japanese military advances in the region in 1941 and 1942 had a significant effect on the Dutch colonial administration. By this stage already forced to act independently of the government in the Netherlands due to the German occupation the weak Dutch military forces in the region proved incapable of offering any serious resistance to the Japanese. The psychological impact of the defeat of the colonial power was carefully exploited by the Japanese who could, at least initially claim to be the liberators of the country. The willingness of some of the nascent Indonesian political leaders to co-operate with the Japanese spared the country the kind of atrocities perpetrated against other areas of Japanese occupation and, if only superficially, boosted the position of the anti-Dutch factions in the country. More importantly, however, this period politicized the population and did much to create an Indonesian national identity. 28. Impact of Japanese Defeat. The dramatic and sudden end to the war in August 1945 further strengthened the Indonesian nationalists by allowing them, in the absence of a triumphant return of the colonial power, to negotiate with the surrendering Japanese a transition of power. In the resultant power vacuum the nationalist parties could claim to be the legitimate representatives of the state. Such a development could also be seen in French Indochina. Finally in the wake of the Japanese defeat the Indonesian nationalist groups were able to obtain weapons and military equipment from the Japanese troops which they would later be able to use to equip their own forces with to fight both the arriving British troops and returning Dutch. 29. Dutch Postwar Military and Political Weakness. Paradoxically the need for the Dutch to rapidly re-occupy their colonies in the East Indies, Holland’s economic devastation during the Second World War, was the primary contributor to her failure. With her regional prestige and authority fatally undermined by the Japanese occupation the Dutch, in addition, unable to generate the military forces necessary to re-establish their colonial rule by force. 30. Impact of the British Occupation. The short term British occupation of the region, much as in French Indochina, was sufficient only to force the newly proclaimed Indonesian Republic forces out of the major population centres and to allow the Dutch to regain a precarious foothold. The military forces that the Dutch could deploy, coupled with unwillingness on the part of the home government to embark on a determined military policy, were never sufficient to regain control. 31. Impact of International Opinion. In addition to their weak military and political situation the Dutch were subjected to considerable political pressure from the United States to come to a negotiated political settlement. American suspicion of the European colonial powers coupled with some adroit maneuvering by the nationalist groups whereby they could cast themselves as genuine nationalist, and more importantly as anti-communist, meant that the Dutch received very little international support. The rapid decolonization of the Indian sub-continent in 1947 also set an example for the nationalists groups to aspire to. Within the region itself the failure of the Dutch to create any form of support base, beyond a few minority Christian areas, blunted the appeal of any negotiated settlement short of full independence and sovereignty. The initial proposal to include the region into a commonwealth structure lacked both economic and cultural appeal and crucially for the Dutch could not be achieved by military means. 32. Lessons Learnt. From the perspective of counter insurgency operations the Dutch were weak in a number of critical areas. The lessons drawn out from their failures can be seen enduring elements applicable to present day environments. These lessons are:- a. Government should aim to enact policies that integrate the masses and create a focus for loyalty. b. Distribution of resources and economic development should be fair and equitable. c. Maintenance of Government’s authority and strong image is important to prevent the masses from falling a prey to separatist movements. d. A balanced military and economic capability should be maintained. e. Cordial foreign policy to achieve and maintain international support. 33. Conclusion Indonesia’s “People’s War of Independence” brings out pertinent lessons which are applicable toady also. It shows us the strength of people, commitment and loyalty to cause; need to have strong and charismatic leadership, influencing the world opinion and importance of popular support for successful attainment of the aim. No matter what the odds are, a nation if determined, can force a stronger and formidable opponent to bend and meet its demands. 34. Today, there are number of revolutionary movements underway around the globe. Lessons drawn from Indonesian’s struggle are equally applicable to these movements and for their successful conduct and achieving of their aim. 35. Bibliography a. Encarta Reference Library Premium 2005 (DVD- ROM) Indonesia 1987, An Offical Handbook, (Department of Information, Republic of Indonesia) b. Directorate of Foreign Information Services, Department of Information, Republic of Indonesia, “Indonesia’s history and background” ( online ) Available http://www.asianinfo.org/asianinfo/indonesia/pro-history.htm c. Library of Congress Country Studies, “Indonesia, the National Revolution 1945 to 1950”. [Online] Available http://www.gimonca.com/sejarah/sejarah08.shtml d. Library of Congress Country Studies, “Indonesia, the National Revolution 1945 to 1950”. [Online] Available http://www.gimonca.com/sejarah/sejarah08.shtml e. Directorate of Foreign Information Services, Department of Information, Republic of Indonesia, “Indonesia’s history and background”( online ) Available http://www.indonesia- ottawa.org/page.php's=1000birth_republic