India_and_World_Science_Are_We_There

For those unfortunate to be afflicted by diabetes, the misfortune does not just arise from the condition. The treatment also involves pain - of a more literal kind. Type 1 diabetics wrestle daily with the unpleasant prospect of jabbing themselves with insulin. Convinced that the remedy is worse than the disease, many patients often skip the treatment and live - or die - with the consequences. To mitigate their plight, researchers from the National Institute of Immunology in New Delhi recently devised a technique that could lower the frequency of this ritual to once in several months. Speaking to Sify, Dr Avadhesha Surolia, Director of the NII and head of the research team, said "this is indeed a pioneering and extremely important piece of work, given that India ranks very high in the number of people being affected with diabetes". According to an estimate by the International Diabetes Federation in October 2009, India had the highest number of diabetics with 50.8 million. However, in March this year, a study published by the New England Journal of Medicine suggested that China had the dubious distinction of being the world leader in this category, with 92.4 million diabetics. It is possible that the number of diabetics in India may also be revised upwards as new data is collected. In fact, the Union Health Minister, Ghulam Nabi Azad, announced in May that the government plans to hold a diabetes census in the next two years. The conventional insulin therapy is not only inconvenient but also "inadequate for blood glucose control between meals and during the night," as Dr Surolia pointed out. "Thus, a single shot of insulin delivering a very basal level continuously for even a month would not only improve the life led by these patients but also prevent morning hypoglycaemia, which is a dreaded condition faced by them," he said. He elaborated on the technical breakthrough that his team achieved during the project which was initiated about three and a half years ago when he took up the directorship of the NII. "This piece of work is unique and simple, as it coaxes the protein to fold, to generate the Supramolecular Insulin assembly or SIA-II. I have been working of protein folding and other aspects for a long time." "Thus it was easier for me to envisage the process by which the insulin molecules could be brought together in millions without any chemical additives to form a depot at the site of injection and releasing active insulin monomers in a sustained manner," he said. The SIA-II is in the form of a prodrug, which refers to a drug administered in a less active form that is metabolised inside the body to become active. It has the additional benefit of being free from harmful side-effects unlike the current treatment. According to Dr. Surolia, "the reason for its long term bioavailability is its protection from destruction (by enzymes in the body) because of its presentation in a compact form." It has been tested successfully on mice and rats so far. Asked when it will be cleared for use by humans, Dr. Surolia said, "As with any other research, this work has been done only on small animals in the laboratory. Therefore it is still in its nascent stage and many experiments such as toxicological studies in higher animals need to be done." "These further experiments are routine and established experimental protocols which are followed for all drugs being screened for human usage. The experiments done in the lab are a proof of concept and its usage in humans would take a minimum of 4-6 years," he added. Dr. Surolia was non-committal on whether it would be cheaper than the present therapy in the long run. "It is extremely difficult to evaluate the cost at this early stage. It will definitely depend on the investments and turnovers of the company involved." Further trials have been outsourced to a company in the US, since India does not appear to have the requisite knowhow. As he explained, "My team has only peripheral knowledge of clinical trials. Whoever is the ultimate developer, it will be done in a professional manner. Anyway, science is international and its benefits are reaped everywhere."   He also noted that the advances made in the course of this research have wider applications beyond the treatment of diabetes and "might generate new therapeutic approaches for various diseases." Given that the research pursued at the NII, and Dr. Surolia's laboratory in particular, is multi-disciplinary, with work being done simultaneously on malaria, tuberculosis, arthritis, multiple sclerosis and Alzheimer's, it will not be surprising if the institute produces more such cutting-edge R&D in the not-so-distant future. Pitching for greater collaboration between institutions like IITs and the corporate sector, Prime Minister Manmohan Singh has said the country urgently needs to increase quality research in science and technology to meet newer challenges like climate change. Addressing the convocation of IIT-Kanpur, he also said that the government has set in motion an ambitious programme to completely restructure the legal and regulatory environment of higher education. Observing that science and technology played a dominant role in determining the power and progress of a nation, Singh said, "This role has become even more critical in the wake of newer challenges like climate change." He said the country needed more innovation in areas like sustainable agriculture, affordable health care and energy security. Share on Twitter Share on Social Gmail Buzz Print "India's strength in frugal engineering and extremely affordable innovations is becoming known internationally. Indian scientists and engineers should leverage this strength to play a more prominent role in addressing problems that affect all countries of the world," he said. Advocating greater collaboration between institutions like IITs and the corporate sector, he said, "This would be of mutual benefit to both- to the corporate sector it would mean cost effective solutions and newer technology while for the IITs it would bring much needed funds and enhance their research capabilities." While noting that efforts have been made to expand higher education facilities on an unprecedented scale in the last five years, he said, "The issue of quality remains". A major constraint was the availability of good faculty, he said, adding that a large number of bright students should be encouraged to join academics and IIT community must come together to evolve other innovative ways to address these issues. The government would ensure that the IITs function with the required degree of autonomy and flexibility and that the genuine needs of the IIT faculty were met, he said. The Prime Minister was also conferred degree of Doctor of Science, Honoris Causa. Former president APJ Abdul Kalam and former prime minister Morarji Desai were among eminent personalities who received the honorary degree earlier. The Prime Minister said the IITs should strive to be among the very best in science and technology institutes of the world. "An obvious area of improvement is the quality of post graduate programmes. We need to strengthen the master and doctoral programmes in the IITs," he said. He said bright students should be encouraged to opt for research and acquire PhD degrees. A number of new IITs, IIMs, and IISERs have been started and more than 300 degree colleges have been opened in selected districts, he said adding government spending on higher education has been enhanced manifold. Noting that the government has set in motion an ambitious programme to completely restructure the legal and regulatory environment of higher education, Singh said intensive consultations were on to set up the National Council for Higher Education and Research (NCHER). "Several important bills have been introduced in the Parliament. These relate to accreditation, foreign universities, educational tribunals and unfair practices", the Prime Minister said. A task force constituted by the HRD Ministry had earlier formulated a draft legislation for the establishment of the NCHER to promote the autonomy of higher educational institutions for free pursuit of knowledge and innovation and provide for comprehensive and holistic growth of higher education and research in a competitive global environment. The Prime Minister said that the government has tried to ensure that science and technology formed strong pillars of its strategic alliances with other countries and establishment of IIT, Kanpur marked the beginning of cooperation between India and the United States in science and technology. In the recently held meeting of Indo-US Science and Technology Joint Commission, several important decisions have been taken to take this cooperation rapidly forward, he said. The government has also launched a joint initiative of seven IITs for the development of a management plan for the National Ganga River Basin, he said. Crediting the IIT alumni with transforming the country's image, the Prime Minister said, "The alumni of the IIT system have done our country proud. The peaking of the careers of the early batches of the IITs has broadly coincided with the new recognition and respect with which the world views India today." Singh also referred to association of IIT-Kanpur with a diverse range of projects in railways, water resources, energy and environment and said these would greatly benefit the country. He said the government has launched a new initiative in solar energy to be executed jointly by three Central Ministries and IIT Kanpur which would explore new ways of storage of solar energy and its conversion into electricity. Referring to the IIT-Kanpur's involvement in a project with the Railways, Singh said the development of zero discharge toilet technology was a wonder contribution not only to the railways but also to the shikaras of the Dal Lake in Srinagar. "Similarly, the train tracking system that IIT-Kanpur has developed should improve the efficiency and safety of our railways", the Prime Minister added. The Prime Minister also presented medals to five meritorious students of the institute. He said the students should always bear in mind that the people of our country, which is still burdened with persistent poverty, hunger and disease, have party paid for their education and they should in some manner, however small it may be, give back to the society and the people who have nurtured them. New Delhi: India joined an international telescope project - Thirty Metre Telescope (TMT) as an observer to help and develop world's most advanced and capable astronomical observatory on the top of a volcanic peak in Hawaii. While announcing India's decision to join the project, Science and technology minister Prithviraj Chauhan in California said that the decision has been taken after a panel of Indian astronomers recommended the proposal.   The TMT is believed to be world's most powerful optical telescope will be completed by 2018. The telescope will help in searching for planets outside the solar system and the study of the earliest galaxies. However, Pune based Inter-University Centre for Astronomy and Astrophysics (IUCAA) is hopeful that this observer status of India will be converted into full partnership in the project very soon. Other Indian institutes including Indian Institute of Astrophysics (IIA) Bangalore and Aryabhata Research Institute of Observational Sciences (ARIES), Nainital along with IUCAA had recommended the proposal to join the TMT project. The US scientists have welcomed India's entry as an Observer in the project. Possibly the most fashionable theme in current discussions of the future is whether China will replace the United States as the leading world power. That it will do so seems to be taken for granted in pop-historical circles, as well as among economic forecasters or futurists (who currently have a record that does not inspire confidence). A Goldman Sachs analysis declares that China will replace the United States as the largest economy in the world by 2027. But the largest economy is not automatically the leading nation. And ruling the world is more of a problem than one thinks, as Washington is discovering. “When China Rules the World: The End of the Western World and the Birth of a New Global Order” by Martin Jacques is one of a number of recent books on this theme. But why should China rule the world if the United States cannot do so despite the best efforts of Republicans and of the Democratic Party hawks who currently have the ear of Barack Obama' The poverty of this argument is very striking. It assumes that the country with the largest industrial production rules the globe, and it disregards nearly all that contributes to the human capacity to lead, which is to say, to create a dominant civilization. China and its rival India possess a theoretical potential for mass industrial production largely because they are the two most populous countries in the world, and, in a globalized market economy, they have been able to supply the leading industrial countries with cheap, skilled and, until now, docile labor. Foreign industrial countries therefore have, in a globalized economy, been able to exploit this labor. Before globalization, they manufactured their goods at home. But neither China nor India created their modern industries: They received them from the West. These are largely the creations of foreign investment, meant to produce goods for foreign markets. This obviously is not a situation that will continue indefinitely; the Indian and Chinese labor markets are already vulnerable to the available labor in poorer and less sophisticated societies. China and India will have profited from this experience, and their own industries will be left in a position to profit from it in their own process of further development, which nonetheless will for many years remain inferior to those of societies able to continue to outperform them in innovation, scientific progress and overall sophistication. Quality of civilization is what counts. Europe dominated the world from the Renaissance until the terrible European civil wars of the 20th century because the Europeans explored the world, learned from what they found, created modern science and technology, organized their own societies in ways never before known with unprecedented systems of administration and power, and provided a quality of life for their populations that maintained the allegiance of their societies. They did not simply out-produce everyone else in manufacture and agriculture; they revolutionized medieval methods of material production and feudal farming. Advertisement They also produced the ideas that dominated the age—scientific ideas, ideologies of progress and governance, theories of human society and of the future. The world still lives on the intellectual legacy of Renaissance and Enlightenment Europe, as well as upon the political and philosophical legacy of Greece and Judeo-Christian religion. The United States developed from this Europe and extended the power and influence of the West with its innovative democratic society and federal institutions, democratization of culture and industry, and, since 1945, its promulgation of its own ideas and ambitions to the world at large, as well as its creation of a globalized industrial market, globalized communications and much more. Obviously China in its great age was an immense civilization with innovative science and technology, whose moral as well as cultural influence shaped what we know now as the Far East. India was not a powerful centralized state, but it created a religious civilization whose influence endures. To compare them with the West is not to denigrate them, and China in particular may indeed become a major world power in the next half-century. It may acquire global military ambitions, although speaking historically, that would be uncharacteristic. But will it, or India, or any other of the second-ranking economic powers of the present day, see an original development of civilization able to dominate science and seize the imaginations of the rest of the world' Will Americans and Europeans in the coming century emulate and admire Chinese and Indian civilizations, learn from them, find themselves reduced to the status of satellites of Asia' Will China indeed rule the world' None of us are likely to be here to see the answer. Invented jointly by Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar and K.N. Mathur in 1928, the so-called 'Bhatnagar-Mathur Magnetic Interference Balance' was a modern instrument used for measuring various magnetic properties.[3] The first appearance of this instrument in Europe was at a Royal Society exhibition in London, where it was later marketed by British firm Messers Adam Hilger and Co, London.[3] resistant iron: The first corrosion-resistant iron was used to erect the Iron pillar of Delhi, which has withstood corrosion for over 1,600 years.[28] * The crescograph, a device for measuring growth in plants, was invented in the early 20th century by the Bengali scientist Jagdish Chandra Bose.[30][31] * Crucible steel: Perhaps as early as 300 BCE—although certainly by 200 CE—high quality steel was being produced in southern India also by what Europeans would later call the crucible technique.[32] In this system, high-purity wrought iron, charcoal, and glass were mixed in a crucible and heated until the iron melted and absorbed the carbon.[32] The first crucible steel was the wootz steel that originated in India before the beginning of the common era.[33] Archaeological evidence suggests that this manufacturing process was already in existence in South India well before the Christian era.[34][35] * Dental drill, and dental surgery: The Indus Valley Civilization has yielded evidence of dentistry being practiced as far back as 7000 BCE.[36] This earliest form of dentistry involved curing tooth related disorders with bow drills operated, perhaps, by skilled bead craftsmen.[37] The reconstruction of this ancient form of dentistry showed that the methods used were reliable and effective.[38] The world's first dock at Lothal (2400 BCE) was located away from the main current to avoid deposition of silt.[52] Modern oceanographers have observed that the Harappans must have possessed great knowledge relating to tides in order to build such a dock on the ever-shifting course of the Sabarmati, as well as exemplary hydrography and maritime engineering.[52] This was the earliest known dock found in the world, equipped to berth and service ships.[52] It is speculated that Lothal engineers studied tidal movements, and their effects on brick-built structures, since the walls are of kiln-burnt bricks.[53] This knowledge also enabled them to select Lothal's location in the first place, as the Gulf of Khambhat has the highest tidal amplitude and ships can be sluiced through flow tides in the river estuary.[53] The engineers built a trapezoidal structure, with north-south arms of average 21.8 metres (71.5 ft), and east-west arms of 37 metres (121 ft).[53] The source of the carbon pigment used in India ink was India.[66][67] In India, the carbon black from which India ink is produced is obtained by burning bones, tar, pitch, and other substances.[67][68] Ink itself has been used in India since at least the 4th century BC.[69] Masi, an early ink in India was an admixture of several chemical components.[69] Indian documents written in Kharosthi with ink have been unearthed in Xinjiang.[70] The practice of writing with ink and a sharp pointed needle was common in ancient South India.[71] Several Jain sutras in India were compiled in The advances made by seers of yore should inspire Indians today who are once again making a mark in the cutting-edge fields of science and technology Gazing at an endless blue sky, you must have often wondered at what makes the earth go round and the apple fall from a tree. Whenever such queries cropped up, you found the answers in school science books. The word 'science' literally means knowledge or the state of knowing. When this knowledge is put to practical use, it creates technology. Today, we have most, if not all, science recorded for posterity in print and other media. But if the history of science is traced back to its origin, it probably starts from an unmarked era of ancient times. The phenomenal advances of ancient India, for example, in science and technology are the stuff that legends are made of-be it the oft-quoted example of the conception of zero or developments in the fields of astronomy, chemistry and metallurgy. Science, in fact, was neither 'discovered' nor 'invented': it was 'revealed' to ancient Indian seers in their meditations, got codified in the four Vedas-Rig, Yajur, Sam, Atharva-and was passed on from generation to generation. "The language of the Vedas," explains Dr Thomas Arya, a German psychologist and committed Indophile, "is symbolic and imagistic. It clothes all knowledge in symbols that a literal mind may comprehend only at the most evident level." SCIENCE IN RITUALS The Vedic cosmology evolved as part of a complex system of sacrificial ritual. Although the Rig Veda does not mention any temples, according to scholar Nundolal Dey in his book Civilization in Ancient India, "each house had a furnished room as a receptacle of the sacred fire". The daily havan (fire worship) preceded all rituals and particular emphasis was given to building the havan kund or altar. The agni cayana or flare of the fire linked sky and earth. So, square and round altars represented sky and earth respectively. Every altar was different, with a specific shape and number of bricks based on astronomical and calendar calculations. For instance, the sky altar had five layers of bricks, each signifying the number of years. "Probably these rituals led to the birth of various branches of mathematics," notes the book In Search of the Cradle of Civilization, written by George Feuerstein, Subhash Kak and David Frawley. ASTRONOMY The central position enjoyed by rituals demanded a proper comprehension of the skies and time. Although astronomy bloomed much later, thanks to the seminal work of Aryabhatta (499 AD), Latadeva (505 AD), Brahmagupta (628 AD) and Bhaskaracharya (1150 AD), "the earliest writer on astronomy is said to have been Parasara," says Dey. The primary aim of astronomy then was rectifying the calendar, ascertaining chronological epochs and calculating eclipses. "Although it is generally supposed that the Surya Siddhanta by Latadeva is the oldest astronomical text in India, some consider Brahmagupta's Brahama Siddhanta to be the earliest work," notes Dey. Aryabhatta is supposed to have compiled Aryabhita Sutra around sixth century AD. Many theories postulated then have found uncanny support now. Take Bhaskara's Siddhanta Siromani, where he mentions a force of attraction resembling gravity, discovered centuries later by Newton. In Surya Siddhanta, Latadeva talked about the earth's axis and called it sumeru. The astronomers also divided the year into 12 months and six seasons. Behind such amazing discoveries was a rigorous study of the sky and a mathematical precision in instruments used. Of note is the bhubhagola, an instrument composed of rings showing the positions of important circles of the celestial sphere. Its design was similar to the armillary sphere, an instrument popular among European astronomers. Obviously, a proper reading of these instruments demanded a separate stream of knowledge-mathematics. MATHEMATICS The Third Anniversary Discourse: On The Hindu, Indophile Sir William Jones wrote: "The ancient Indians can boast of three inventions-instructing by apologues, decimal scale and the game of chess." Although the seeds of mathematics were present in Vedic rituals, including Vedic mathematics, a relatively simple method for complex calculations, they truly blossomed in astronomy. In fact, Indian mathematics' greatest contribution came, philosophically enough, in the form of zero, courtesy Aryabhatta. In the Kalpasutras, penned in 290 BC, the scholar Bhadrabahu even solved the Pythagorean theorem. An extant book on arithmetic was the Lilavati by Bhaskara. Lilavati contains the common rules of science and applies them to motley questions on interest, barter, mixtures, combinations and permutations. The development of mathematics was not restricted to astronomy. It was an integral part of trade and commerce much before the Vedic era. Says Dr Arya: "The weights used by the Indus valley civilizations of Harappa and Mohenjodaro followed a binary system and measurements were based on the decimal system." The pursuit of knowledge, therefore, was strong much before the Vedic times. Known as rasayan shastra, chemistry was initially part of the medical treatise Charak Samhita. "They (ancient Indians) knew how to prepare sulfuric acid, nitric acid, the oxide of copper, iron, lead, tin and zinc, the sulphate of copper, zinc and iron, and the carbonates of lead and iron," writes historian Elphinstone in his book History of India. According to Dey, the weapons mentioned in the Indian epics Ramayana and the Mahabharata were actually products of chemistry. All warfare knowledge resided with the Brahmins, who later imparted it to the Kshatriyas. "The mantra the gurus gave their pupils was nothing but chemistry," argues Dey. "The arrowheads were probably coated with certain chemicals." Dey goes on to state that even gunpowder, whose invention is traditionally ascribed to the Chinese, was known to ancient Indian chemists. "Gunpowder," he says, "was known as aurbagni, being the invention of Aurba, the preceptor of Sagara and the ancestor of Rama." The ingredients and power of the fire of aurba have been described thus in the work Nitichintamani: "Combining burnt wood (charcoal), saltpeter and sulfur by parts gradually lessened, a terrible fire is produced by which even water and others are burnt." But not all of chemistry was warlike. Because of it being a part of Charak Samhita, chemistry also contained the knowledge of creating medicines by potentizing various metals. This near-extinct healing science is still being practiced today by Vaidya Balendu Prakash in the north Indian valley town of Dehra Dun. AYURVEDA The Charak Samhita consisted of another science of healing—ayurveda, ancient India's most potent contribution to the world of medicine. Legend has it that Brahma, the creator of the universe, perceived this science and taught it to Prajapati Daksha, who transferred the knowledge to his twin brother Ashwini. In his turn, Ashwini taught ayurveda to Indra who passed on the science to various sages. Two of Indra's disciples—Bharadwaja and Deodas Dhanwantari—later became prominent physicians. Dhanwantari revealed this science to his pupil Susruta, who developed surgery. Apart from providing a consummate healing technology, the ayurvedic savants also made some amazing discoveries about the human body. For example, they found that the number of bones in the human body actually equals the number of days in a year. BOTANY The Vedic era's emphasis on nature led to one of the world's earliest classification systems for plants and vegetables—perhaps because ayurvedic physicians looked into nature to find cures for various diseases. The Yajur Veda, for example, contains hymns that classify the plant kingdom into classes, orders, genus and species. According to Dey, this segregation was based on the plants' external appearances. All vegetables that originate either from seeds or from slips of branches were called aushadhi (herbs). The plants that do not bear flower or fruit were termed vanaspati (lords of the forest) and those that did, came to be known as briksha (trees). YESTERDAY ONCE MORE As is evident, most of these sciences were in tune with nature. The ancients did not plunder the earth to search for its natural treasures. It was a contemplation, which took years to manifest. It was the perfect marriage between science and spirituality where one complemented the other. The laboratories of the sages of yore were the open blue sky, the quiet of a virgin forest, the calm of their inner awareness. Here, wisdom dawned. From quantum physics to the Big Bang, the universe was explained in terms of a symbol—the Nataraja—and a poem—the Rig Veda. Here, beauty and knowledge mingled to create a harmony that was unique among all times. Then, shouldn't we follow in the footprints of yesterday in search of a better tomorrow' Isn't it time we look back and seek the universal harmony that we lost somewhere along the race for existence' You may be interested in Indology Preparing for take-off: Indian nanotechnology 29 June 2006 | EN Carbon nanotubes: India is setting up a centre to produce these and other nano-scale products Chris Ewels Nanotechnology research could take off in India but as R. Ramachandran reports, there are obstacles on the runway. India, a late starter in nanotechnology, sputtered along in fits and starts before readying for take-off. While there is support for the sector at the highest scientific levels, funding remains low. And with negligible interest from industry and only a small pool of skilled scientists, India is a long way from using nanoscience to solve its problems. "China is way ahead," says C. N. R. Rao, president of the Jawaharlal Nehru Centre for Advanced Scientific Research in Bangalore. In 2002, India spent US$4 million on nanoscience and technology, compared to China's $200 million. It seems that India has not learnt any lessons from the past. It missed the microelectronics revolution of the 1970s and 1980s through a lack of timely investment, and was no wiser in the 1990s when nanoscience emerged. India was also slow to draw up plans for a national nanoscience programme, and its Nano Science and Technology Initiative was launched just five years ago, in 2001. To date, about US$24 million have been spent under the initiative, largely on basic science projects and related infrastructure within institutions. "We have tried to use the money as wisely as possible and to do our best," says Rao. "But unless we invest more in people and institutions it is going to be difficult to catch up with China." People power R. Aiyagari, the Department of Science and Technology advisor in charge of administering the NSTI accepts that it has not made an impact in nurturing researchers of sufficient calibre for nanotechnology research. "The real problem," says Rao, "is that we have to create the technical manpower to work in this emerging field. We have to train students, teachers and research scholars. Unless we do this, there will not be enough work happening in this area in the near future." He says it is good to see a lot of interest among students but points out that, "there are very few training centres in universities and colleges." Ajay Sood from the Indian Institute of Science in Bangalore is, however, optimistic that India can eventually mobilise larger numbers of nanotechnology researchers. "Initially there were not many people, now the base has certainly grown," he says, attributing this to the widespread availability of equipment such as atomic force microscopes — which can be used to view objects as small as one nanometre across (about 7,000 times smaller than the width of a strand of spider's silk). But while India's NSTI has enabled institutions to buy equipment — sophisticated microscopes, X-ray facilities and optical tweezers — for characterising materials at the nanoscale, the research centres lack other equipment needed to conduct controlled measurements and develop sophisticated methods of production. "As a result, nanoelectronics has hardly taken off," says Sood whose research group made international news in 2002 when they generated electricity by making a fluid flow through single-walled nanotubes. The discovery could lead to an entirely new class of nanosensors — two sensors based on the concept have been patented to date. Winds of Change In parallel with the government failings, India's industry sector has also been reluctant to invest in nanotechnology. "Indian industry has no long-term patience," says Sood, but adds that: "Some change is visible, and some people are talking now." The Indian government is actively promoting links between research institutes and industry, and the Department of Science and Technology has cleared three collaborations between public research institutions and the private sector worth about US$9 million. The New Millennium Indian Technology Leadership Initiative programme of the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research is also promoting two public-private collaborative ventures for developing nanotechnologies that target drugs to exactly where they are needed in the human body. And there has been a significant increase in the number of nanoscience publications, though the number is small compared to China. According to Rao, Indian researchers have so far only published about 100 nanoscience papers in major journals, while Chinese researchers produce more than twice that number each year. Rao says that although India's nanotechnology research has not yet matured to compete on the international stage. "There has been some very good work from some of the laboratories, particularly from [research centres in] Bangalore, in synthesising and characterising a large variety of new materials and also discovering two or three important new phenomena". Besides launching the Nano Science and Technology Initiative, India has also entered into bilateral nanotechnology programmes with the European Union, Germany, Italy, Taiwan and the United States. Two years ago, a national centre for nanomaterials was set up at the International Advanced Research Centre for Powder Metallurgy and New Materials (ARCI) in Hyderabad, in collaboration with Germany, Japan, Russia, Ukraine and the United States. When fully operational — possibly within about a year — the centre will include pilot-scale facilities for producing and manipulating carbon nanotubes, ceramic and polymer composites reinforced with such nanotubes and nanopowders for water and air purification technologies. Four products from ARCI have already been transferred to the industry, including a water filter system for rural areas that uses silver nanoparticles and has shown good results, according to ARCI director G. Sundararajan. The centre has also developed technology for coating materials with nanopowders. "Interest from industry, including foreign companies, in our nanopowder technology is slowly happening," Sundararajan says. Preparing for take-off Brij Mohan Arora, a materials scientist at the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research in Mumbai points out that, overall, India does not have many achievements to showcase yet. "Much of it has been small table top research, but nevertheless it has created an awareness about techniques," he says. If India wants to catch up with the best of the world's nanoscience researchers, and apply the technology to developing world issues — such as energy, water and health care — it seems that far greater investment is needed. Fortunately for India, it is one of the few countries whose leader is pushing to improve funding for the sector. President A. P. J. Abdul Kalam, a former scientist in the space and defence sectors, was one of the first to point out that the country's nanotechnology research was sub-optimal. In April 2004, Kalam organised a meeting of nanoscience experts to devise a national mission plan. Its recommendations include spending US$22 million each year for the next five years on five new national facilities specialising in complimentary areas of nanotechnology and ten 'mini centres' across the country. These centres would each receive US$5 million, and would focus on one or two areas of nanoscience and technology. Overall, the experts recommended that US$200 million be spent on nanotechnology over a five-year period. India's finance ministry has now cleared these funds for use in 2006-2011. From later this year, the new national mission will oversee activities currently under the Nano Science and Technology Initiative. Kalam has also called for a "dynamic task force" to identify important national projects and set deadlines for achieving results in areas such as nanotube-based solar power cells, diagnostic kits and drug delivery systems for cancer and HIV/AIDS, and fluorescent nanopowders for use in display technologies. It will be a huge challenge to come out with a few commercial products at the end of the five-year period, and to this end says Kalam, research teams will have to work together in a more coordinated and focused way "Nanoscience and technologies are multidisciplinary," he told an international conference in New Delhi earlier this year. "Hence research teams have to work in an integrated way… A new way of thinking in our nation is essential." With the government nod of approval for such a mission, research in nanoscience and technology in India looks poised for a renewed take-off. The Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO, Hindi: भारतीय अन्तरिक्ष अनुसंधान संगठन) is the primary body for space research under the control of the Government of India, and one of the leading space research organizations in the world. It was established in its modern form in 1969 as a result of coordinated efforts initiated earlier. Taking into consideration its budget, it is probably one of the most efficient space organizations on the globe. Under the guidance of a number of scientists, ISRO has conducted a variety of operations for both Indian and foreign clients. ISRO's satellite launch capability is provided by indigenous launch vehicles and launch sites. In 2008, ISRO successfully launched its first lunar probe, Chandrayaan-1, while future plans include manned space missions, further lunar exploration, and interplanetary probes. ISRO has several field installations as assets, and cooperates with the international community as a part of several bilateral and multilateral agreements. Contents[hide] * 1 Formative years * 2 Goals and objectives * 3 Launch vehicle fleet * 3.1 Satellite Launch Vehicle (SLV) * 3.2 Augmented Satellite Launch Vehicle (ASLV) * 3.3 Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV) * 3.4 Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV) * 3.5 Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle Mark-III (GSLV III) * 4 Earth observation and communication satellites * 4.1 The INSAT series * 4.2 The IRS series * 4.3 Oceansat series * 4.4 Other satellites * 5 Extraterrestrial exploration * 5.1 Lunar exploration * 5.2 Planetary exploration * 6 Human spaceflight program * 6.1 Technology demonstration * 6.2 Astronaut training and other facilities * 6.3 Development of crew vehicle * 7 Planetary sciences and astronomy * 8 Field installations * 8.1 Research facilities * 8.2 Test facilities * 8.3 Construction and launch facilities * 8.4 Tracking and control facilities * 8.5 Human resource development * 8.6 Commercial wing * 9 Vision for the future * 9.1 Indian lunar exploration programme * 9.2 Space exploration * 9.3 IRNSS * 9.4 Development of new launch vehicles * 10 Applications * 11 Global cooperation * 12 See also * 13 Notes * 14 References * 15 Further reading * 16 External links | [edit] Formative years Dr. Vikram Sarabhai, the father of Indian Space Program. Modern space research in India is most visibly traced to the activities of scientist S.K. Mitra who conducted a series of experiments leading to the sounding of the ionosphere by application of ground based radio methods in 1920's Calcutta.[2] Later, Indian scientists like C.V. Raman and Meghnad Saha contributed to scientific principles applicable in space sciences.[2] However, it was the period after 1945 which saw important developments being made in coordinated space research in India.[2] Organized space research in India was spearheaded by two scientists: Vikram Sarabhai—founder of the Physical Research Laboratory at Ahmedabad—and Homi Bhabha, who had played a role in the establishment of the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research in 1945.[2] Initial experiments in space sciences included the study of cosmic radiation, high altitude and airborne testing of instruments, deep underground experimentation at the Kolar mines—one of the deepest mining sites in the world — and studies of the upper atmosphere.[3] Studies were carried out at research laboratories, universities, and independent locations.[3][4] Government support became visible by 1950 when the Department of Atomic Energy (India) was founded with Homi Bhabha as secretary.[4] The Department of Atomic Energy provided funding for space research throughout India.[5] Tests on the Earth's magnetic field—studied in India since the establishment of the observatory at Colaba in 1823—and aspects of meteorology continued to yield valuable information and in 1954, Uttar Pradesh state observatory was established at the foothills of the Himalayas.[4] The Rangpur Observatory was set up in 1957 at Osmania University, Hyderabad.[4] Both these facilities enjoyed the technical support and scientific cooperation of the United States of America.[4] Space research was further encouraged by the technically inclined prime minister of India—Jawaharlal Nehru.[5] In 1957, the Soviet Union successfully launched the Sputnik and opened up possibilities for the rest of the world to conduct a space launch.[5] The Indian National Committee for Space Research (INCOSPAR) was found in 1962 with Vikram Sarabhai as its chairman.[5] Beginning in the 1960s, close ties with the Soviet Union enabled ISRO rapidly to develop the Indian space program and advance nuclear power in India even after the first nuclear test explosion by India on 18 May 1974 at Pokhran.[6] The death of Homi Bhabha in an air crash on 24 January 1966 came as a blow to the Indian space program.[7] Following Bhabha's passing, Sarabhai was sent to assume Bhabha's place as the chairman of the Atomic Energy Commission and secretary of the Department of Atomic Energy.[7] The 1960s also saw the founding of the Space Science and Technology Centre (SSTC), Experimental Satellite Communication Earth Station (ESCES, 1967), the Sriharikota base, and the Indian Satellite System Project (ISSP).[7] The Indian Space Research Organization in its modern form was created by Vikram Sarabhai in 1969.[7] This body was to take control of all space activities in the Republic of India.[7] [edit] Goals and objectives The prime objective of ISRO is to develop space technology and its application to various national tasks.[8] The Indian space program was driven by the vision of Dr Vikram Sarabhai, considered the father of Indian Space Programme.[9] As stated by him: “ | There are some who question the relevance of space activities in a developing nation. To us, there is no ambiguity of purpose. We do not have the fantasy of competing with the economically advanced nations in the exploration of the moon or the planets or manned space-flight. But we are convinced that if we are to play a meaningful role nationally, and in the community of nations, we must be second to none in the application of advanced technologies to the real problems of man and society.[8] | ” | As also pointed out by Dr APJ Kalam: “ | Many individuals with myopic vision questioned the relevance of space activities in a newly independent nation, which was finding it difficult to feed its population. Their vision was clear if Indians were to play meaningful role in the community of nations, they must be second to none in the application of advanced technologies to their real-life problems. They had no intention of using it as a mean to display our might.[10] | ” | India's economic progress has made its space program more visible and active as the country aims for greater self-reliance in space technology.[11] Hennock etc. hold that India also connects space exploration to national prestige, further stating: "This year India has launched 11 satellites, including nine from other countries—and it became the first nation to launch 10 satellites on one rocket."[11] [edit] Launch vehicle fleet Comparison of Indian carrier rockets. Left to right: SLV, ASLV, PSLV, GSLV, GSLV III. Geopolitical and economic considerations during the 1960s and 1970s compelled India to initiate its own launch vehicle program.[12] During the first phase (1960s-1970s) the country successfully developed a sounding rockets program, and by the 1980s, research had yielded the Satellite Launch Vehicle-3 and the more advanced Augmented Satellite Launch Vehicle (ASLV), complete with operational supporting infrastructure.[12] ISRO further applied its energies to the advancement of launch vehicle technology resulting in the creation of Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV) and Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV) technologies.[12] [edit] Satellite Launch Vehicle (SLV) Main article: Satellite Launch Vehicle Status: Decommissioned The Satellite Launch Vehicle, usually known by its abbreviation SLV or SLV-3 was a 4-stage solid-fuel light launcher. It was intended to reach a height of 500 km and carry a payload of 40 kg.[13] Its first launch took place in 1979 with 2 more in each subsequent year, and the final launch in 1983. Only two of its four test flights were successful.[14] [edit] Augmented Satellite Launch Vehicle (ASLV) Main article: ASLV Status: Decommissioned The Augmented Satellite Launch Vehicle, usually known by its abbreviation ASLV was a 5-stage solid propellant rocket with the capability of placing a 150 kg satellite into LEO. This project was started by the ISRO during the early 1980s to develop technologies needed for a payload to be placed into a geostationary orbit. Its design was based on Satellite Launch Vehicle.[15] The first launch test was held in 1987, and after that 3 others followed in 1988, 1992 and 1994, out of which only 2 were successful, before it was decommissioned.[14] [edit] Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV) Main article: PSLV Status: Active The Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle, usually known by its abbreviation PSLV, is an expendable launch system developed to allow India to launch its Indian Remote Sensing (IRS) satellites into sun synchronous orbits, a service that was, until the advent of the PSLV, commercially viable only from Russia. PSLV can also launch small satellites into geostationary transfer orbit (GTO). The reliability and versatility of the PSLV is proven by the fact that it has launched 30 spacecraft (14 Indian and 16 from other countries) into a variety of orbits so far.[16] In April 2008, it successfully launched 10 satellites at once, breaking a world record held by Russia.[17] [edit] Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV) Main article: GSLV Status: Active The Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle, usually known by its abbreviation GSLV, is an expendable launch system developed to enable India to launch its INSAT-type satellites into geostationary orbit and to make India less dependent on foreign rockets. At present, it is ISRO's heaviest satellite launch vehicle and is capable of putting a total payload of up to 5 tons to Low Earth Orbit. [edit] Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle Mark-III (GSLV III) Main article: GSLV III Status: Development The Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle Mark-III is a launch vehicle currently under development by the Indian Space Research Organization. It is intended to launch heavy satellites into geostationary orbit, and will allow India to become less dependent on foreign rockets for heavy lifting. The rocket is the technological successor to the GSLV, however is not derived from its predecessor. The maiden flight is scheduled to take place in 2011.[18] [edit] Earth observation and communication satellites INSAT-1B. India's first satellite, the Aryabhata, was launched by the Soviets in 1975. This was followed by the Rohini series of experimental satellites which were built and launched indigenously. At present, ISRO operates a large number of earth observation satellites. [edit] The INSAT series Main article: Indian National Satellite System INSAT (Indian National Satellite System) is a series of multipurpose geostationary satellites launched by ISRO to satisfy the telecommunications, broadcasting, meteorology and search-and-rescue needs of India. Commissioned in 1983, INSAT is the largest domestic communication system in the Asia-Pacific Region. It is a joint venture of the Department of Space, Department of Telecommunications, India Meteorological Department, All India Radio and Doordarshan. The overall coordination and management of INSAT system rests with the Secretary-level INSAT Coordination Committee. [edit] The IRS series Main article: Indian Remote Sensing satellite Indian Remote Sensing satellites (IRS) are a series of earth observation satellites, built, launched and maintained by ISRO. The IRS series provides remote sensing services to the country. The Indian Remote Sensing Satellite system is the largest constellation of remote sensing satellites for civilian use in operation today in the world. All the satellites are placed in polar sun-synchronous orbit and provide data in a variety of spatial, spectral and temporal resolutions to enable several programs to be undertaken relevant to national development. [edit] Oceansat series Oceansat are a series of satellites to primarily study ocean, part of IRS Series. IRS P4 is also known as Oceansat-1, was launched on 27 May 1999. On 23 September 2009 Oceansat-2 was launched. [edit] Other satellites ISRO has also launched a set of experimental geostationary satellites known as the GSAT series. Kalpana-1, ISRO's first dedicated meteorological satellite, was launched by the Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle on 12 September 2002. The satellite was originally known as MetSat-1. In February 2003 it was renamed to Kalpana-1 by the then Indian Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee in memory of Kalpana Chawla – a NASA astronaut of Indian origin who perished in Space Shuttle Columbia. [edit] Extraterrestrial exploration India's first mission beyond Earth's orbit was Chandrayaan-1, a lunar spacecraft which successfully entered the lunar orbit on 8 November 2008. ISRO plans to follow up Chandrayaan-1 with Chandrayaan-2 and unmanned missions to Mars and Near-Earth objects such as asteroids and comets. [edit] Lunar exploration Main article: Chandrayaan-1 Chandrayaan-1 (Sanskrit: चंद्रयान-१) is India's first mission to the moon. The unmanned lunar exploration mission includes a lunar orbiter and an impactor called the Moon Impact Probe. India launched the spacecraft using a modified version of the PSLV is C11 on 22 October 2008 from Satish Dhawan Space Centre, Sriharikota. The vehicle was successfully inserted into lunar orbit on 8 November 2008. It carries high-resolution remote sensing equipment for visible, near infrared, and soft and hard X-ray frequencies. Over its two-year operational period, it is intended to survey the lunar surface to produce a complete map of its chemical characteristics and 3-dimensional topography. The polar regions are of special interest, as they might contain ice. The lunar mission carries five ISRO payloads and six payloads from other international space agencies including NASA, ESA, and the Bulgarian Aerospace Agency, which were carried free of cost. The Chandrayaan-1 along with NASA's LRO played a major role in discovering the existence of water on the moon.[19] [edit] Planetary exploration The Indian Space Research Organisation had begun preparations for a mission to Mars and had received seed money of Rs10 crore from the government.The space agency was looking at launch opportunities between 2013 and 2015.[20] The space agency would use its Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV) to put the satellite in orbit and was considering using ion-thrusters, liquid engines or nuclear power to propel it further towards Mars.[21] The Mars mission studies had already been completed and that space scientists were trying to collect scientific proposals and scientific objectives.[22] [edit] Human spaceflight program Indian Navy Frogmen recovering the SRE-1 Main article: Indian human spaceflight program The Indian Space Research Organization has been sanctioned a budget of Rs. 12,400 crore for its human spaceflight program. According to the Space Commission which passed the budget, an unmanned flight will be launched in 2013[23] and manned mission likely to launch by 2014-2015.[24] If realized in the stated time-frame, India will become only the fourth nation, after the USSR, USA and China, to successfully carry out manned missions indigenously. [edit] Technology demonstration The Space Capsule Recovery Experiment (SCRE or more commonly SRE or SRE-1) is an experimental Indian spacecraft which was launched using the PSLV C7 rocket, along with three other satellites. It remained in orbit for 12 days before re-entering the Earth's atmosphere and splashing down into the Bay of Bengal. The SRE-1 was designed to demonstrate the capability to recover an orbiting space capsule, and the technology for performing experiments in the microgravity conditions of an orbiting platform. It was also intended to test thermal protection, navigation, guidance, control, deceleration and flotation systems, as well as study hypersonic aero-thermodynamics, management of communication blackouts, and recovery operations. ISRO also plans to launch SRE-2 and SRE-3 in the near future to test advanced re-entry technology for future manned missions. [edit] Astronaut training and other facilities ISRO will set up an astronaut training centre in Bangalore by 2012 to prepare personnel for flights onboard the crewed vehicle. The centre will use water simulation to train the selected astronauts in rescue and recovery operations and survival in zero gravity, and will undertake studies of the radiation environment of space. ISRO will build centrifuges to prepare astronauts for the acceleration phase of the mission. It also plans to build a new Launch pad to meet the target of launching a manned space mission by 2015. This would be the third launchpad at the Satish Dhawan Space Centre, Sriharikota. [edit] Development of crew vehicle Main article: ISRO Orbital Vehicle The Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) is working towards a maiden manned Indian space mission vehicle that can carry three astronauts for seven days in a near earth orbit. The Indian manned spacecraft temporarily named as Orbital Vehicle intend to be the basis of indigenous Indian human spaceflight program. The capsule will be designed to carry three people, and a planned upgraded version will be equipped with a rendezvous and docking capability. In its maiden manned mission, ISRO's largely autonomous 3-ton capsule will orbit the Earth at 248 miles (400 km) in altitude for up to seven days with a two-person crew on board. The crew vehicle would launch atop of ISRO's GSLV Mk II, currently under development. The GSLV Mk II features an indigenously developed cryogenic upper-stage engine.[25] The first test of the cryogenic engine, held on 15 April 2010, failed as the cryogenic phase did not perform as expected and rocket deviated from the planned trajectory. [26] A future launch has been scheduled for 2011. If successful then ISRO will become the sixth entity, after United States, Russia, China, Japan and Europe, to develop this technology. [edit] Planetary sciences and astronomy Indian space era dawned when the first two-stage sounding rocket was launched from Thumba in 1963. However even before this epoch making event, noteworthy contributions were made by the Indian scientists in the following areas of space science research: * Cosmic rays and high energy astronomy using both ground based as well as balloon borne experiments/studies such as neutron/meson monitors, Geiger Muller particle detectors/counters etc. * Ionospheric research using ground based radio propagation techniques such as ionosonde, VLF/HF/VHF radio probing, a chain of magnetometer stations etc. * Upper atmospheric research using ground based optical techniques such as Dobson spectrometers for measurement of total ozone content, air glow photometers etc. * Indian astronomers have been carrying out major investigations using a number of ground based optical and radio telescopes with varying sophistication. With the advent of the Indian space program, emphasis was laid on indigenous, self-reliant and state-of-the-art development of technology for immediate practical applications in the fields of space science research activities in the country. There is a national balloon launching facility at Hyderabad jointly supported by TIFR and ISRO. This facility has been extensively used for carrying out research in high energy (i.e., x- and gamma ray) astronomy, IR astronomy, middle atmospheric trace constituents including CFCs & aerosols, ionisation, electric conductivity and electric fields. The flux of secondary particles and X-ray and gamma-rays of atmospheric origin produced by the interaction of the cosmic rays is very low. This low background, in the presence of which one has to detect the feeble signal from cosmic sources is a major advantage in conducting hard X-ray observations from India. The second advantage is that many bright sources like Cyg X-1, Crab Nebula, Scorpius X-1 and Galactic Centre sources are observable from Hyderabad due to their favourable declination. With these considerations, an X-Ray astronomy group was formed at TIFR in 1967 and development of an instrument with an orientable X-Ray telescope for hard X-Ray observations was undertaken. The first balloon flight with the new instrument was made on 28, April 1968 in which observations of Scorpius X-1 were successfully carried out. In a succession of balloon flights made with this instrument between 1968 and 1974 a number of binary X-ray sources including Scorpious X-1, Cyg X-1, Her X-1 etc. and the diffuse cosmic X-ray background were studied. Many new and astrophysically important results were obtained from these observations.[27] One of most important achievements of ISRO in this field was the discovery of three species of bacteria in the upper stratosphere at an altitude of between 20–40 km. The bacteria, highly resistant to ultra-violet radiation, are not found elsewhere on Earth, leading to speculation on whether they are extraterrestrial in origin. These three bacteria can be considered to be extremophiles. Until then, the upper stratosphere was believed to be inhospitable because of the high doses of Ultra-violet radiation. The bacteria were named as Bacillus isronensis in recognition of ISRO's contribution in the balloon experiments, which led to its discovery, Bacillus aryabhata after India's celebrated ancient astronomer Aryabhata and Janibacter Hoylei after the distinguished Astrophysicist Fred Hoyle.[28]