Importance_of_Anti-Communism_on_Us_Policy

Assess the importance of anti-communism in shaping the policies of the United States towards Indochina between 1954 and 1979. The importance of anti-communism in shaping American policy in Indochina between 1954 and 1979 can be viewed as crucial. President Eisenhower had outlined his “domino theory doctrine” in the first Indochina war. This theory was based on the assumption that if Vietnam fell to Communism, its surrounding countries in Asia would also fall, akin to a line of dominoes. It was this theory that dictated United States policy for the duration of the Second Indochina war. The second Indochina war can be viewed as commencing after the failure to hold free elections in Vietnam in 1956, as was outlined in the 1956 Geneva Peace Conference. Hence, the importance of anti-communism in shaping American policy in Indochina up to 1979 can be evidenced by examining the failure of the Geneva Peace Agreement of 1954 and the policies of John F Kennedy, Lyndon B. Johnson and Richard Nixon. When John F. Kennedy (JFK) came to power in 1961, Vietnam was already in an unstable climate that confirmed the beginnings of the Second Indochina War. The South was ruled by Ngo Denh Diem, whom America believed they had in control as their ‘puppet government’. JFK and his presidential advisors thought in line with the domino theory doctrine, believing America’s involvement was crucial in preventing the fall of Vietnam as a whole to Communism. However Kennedy was firm in maintaining a motto of ‘indirect involvement’. This involved the sending over of 11,000 troops known as the ‘Green Berets’ to work in co-operation with Diem’s government in the South. The United States had previously supported Diem in his refusal to hold free general elections in 1956. These elections were outlined as part of the Geneva Peace Agreement. At the Geneva Conference, Vietnam was split along its 17th parallel with the North being given to Ho Chi Minh and the South under Emperor under Bao Dai. However Ngo Denh Diem rigged a referendum to install himself as leader of the South. The US supporting Diem in his move to install himself as leader and refuse to hold elections with Ho Chi Minh can be evidenced as being influenced by the underlying “Domino Theory” doctrine. For instance, in 1956 feelings of anti-imperialist nationalism were widespread throughout both the North and South. Diem, like the United States feared that a general election would result in the election of Ho Chi Minh. Therefore the actions of the US as the world’s super power in not carrying out the actions of the 1954 Geneva Peace Conference was justified by their ‘domino theory’ doctrine that communism must be contained. JFK maintained to the American republic, that it was America’s responsibility as a world superpower to control communism in the Asian region. Hence, this was the justification used for both the United States congress to approve funds for the war and for the American public. Diem exploited the trust that United States placed in him, in simply demanding more military supplies and aid. Initially Kennedy responded by gradually increasing the presence of the ‘Green Berets’ in the South. This was in line with the United States’ firm belief that a policy of attrition; wearing down the opposition over time would prevail due to their military supremacy. Despite strict orders from Kennedy not to partake in direct military involvement; historical evidence from Vietnam historian: J. Harpur suggests that the Green Berets did in fact become involved in widespread corruption and direct action from as early as 1961. Diem’s government was soon realised to be a self-motivated, totalitarian regime. Diem, being a catholic had embarked on a policy of purging the Buddhist majority and ruled by nepotism; allowing his sister in law: Madam Nhu and brother to take up prominent governing positions. The first international opposition to the United States supporting Diem came when the self- immolation of a Buddhist monk was televised globally, as a means of protest against Diem’s regime. Buddhist uprisings had caused insurgency against Diem’s regime. It was the event of early 1963, when a monk sat in the middle of the road, covered himself with petrol and set himself alight that caused widespread controversy. The notorious Madam Nhu had applauded the event. She was quoted at the time saying “Let them burn and we shall clap our hands”. The controversy caused by this incident and the realisation for America that Diem was not proving effective in their quest to contain communism; that shifted a policy move against him. Therefore a scheme was devised by the United States government, in accordance with the CIA for an uprising against Diem. This resulted in the assassination of Diem in 1963. Three weeks later in mysterious circumstances, JFK himself was also assassinated, placing America in a precarious position by both national and global opinion. Lyndon B. Johnson (LBJ) was JFK’s vice president and he took over to announce that a firmer line of involvement was necessary for the United States. He too, was dictated primarily by the importance of anti-communism outlined in the ‘domino theory’ doctrine. Johnson and his defence secretary: Robert McNamara believed that this firmer stance could be found by shifting American feeling from a ‘war of attrition’ to one of escalation. In 1964, LBJ found the mandate he needed to execute his policy of escalation in the ‘Gulf of Tonkin’ incident. This event arose from the alleged bombing of the naval vessel’ Maddox’ in the Gulf of Tonkin. LBJ used this as his justification to secure a’ blank cheque’ from congress. This literally allowed him to demand whatever funds necessary for the escalation of the war. This decision by congress can be viewed as direct evidence of how important anti-communism was in shaping American policy regarding Indochina. LBJ himself referred to his new mandate “like Grandma’s nightshirt; it covered everything” This led to the direct involvement of the United States, with the sending of ground troops by later 1965. By 1967; over 100,000 ground troops and 24,000 military advisors had been sent to Vietnam. The Tet Offensive of 1968 resulted in a humiliating defeat for the United States government in that it turned public opinion against the war. LBJ lost the following election with Richard Nixon sworn in as president. The Moratorium movement began to emerge as widespread dissent to the war became apparent on the United States home-front. The incident at Kent State University whereby four university students were shot by the National Guard for protesting against the war provides another example of how important anti-communism was in shaping the policies of the United States government. The father of one of the students shot was quoted as saying “Have we come to such a state in this country that a student cannot protest against the actions of her government'” (Conflict in Indochina: Ian Sutherland). Although the Kent State university incident was not part of the United States government’s official policy on Vietnam; it’s consequences of shooting students for protest in a democratic country can be attributed to the importance of anti-communism in shaping the policies of the United States towards Indochina. President Nixon too was guided by anti-communism but felt that there was a need for America to withdraw from the war with honour. Hence, this was the basis for his ‘peace with honour’ policy that led to his election victory. As part of his policy, he outlined that of ‘Vietnamisation’; whereby the South Vietnamese would become more responsible for the running of their own affairs. Hence, the South Vietnamese Army (ARVN) would take over much of the previous duties carried out by US troops. However Nixon’s emphasis leaned more towards the withdrawal of the United States from the Vietnam War, as growing political pressure and home front opposition emerged in America. Although, Nixon “re-escalated’ the conflict in Vietnam by expanding the war into Cambodia and Laos, and ordering the heavy bombing of North Vietnam, he was less influenced by feelings of anti-communism than his predecessors as he responded to the immediate demands of the home front. This led to the United States withdrawing in 1973 with the Paris Peace Accords. Anti-communism in the United States was extremely important in shaping the Eisenhower’s “domino theory” doctrine that communism must be contained in the Asian region. This can be evidenced from America’s initial stance of indirect involvement which progressed toward a ‘war of attrition’ and finally became more direct with the policy of escalation. It was only with Nixon’s policy of Vietnamisation were feelings of anti-communism overlooked by the need to withdraw America’s involvement, due to growing home front opposition.