Imagery_in_John_Updike’S_Works

Imagery in John Updike’s Works The origin of symbol The idea of verbal image comes from literature. In literature the language itself is a work of art. It is a well known truth that every work of verbal art is composed of words. Words are the basic tool in the hands of the writer to create his work. Of course we use words in our everyday life, we communicate with the help of it on different topics and do not even pay attention to the power that they possess. The meaning of the word in verbal art is never limited with its fixed, dictionary meaning. The words besides their nominative meaning gain new shades of meanings. In literature words must not be non-motivated. The selection of words is connected with the way of expressing the reality. Which is expressed by authors through images. With the help of the image the author informs his reader the main theme of the written work. It helps the reader to reveal the essence of the written work, be aware of the intentions of the author. In our article we will concentrate on local images and images for the whole text, that is symbolic images. As Losev suggested in his work it is very important to distinguish between the “symbol” and “metaphor”. The thing common to them is that in both there is a concept of artistic image, but in a metaphor there is not that mysterious phenomenon or the object which is pointed out by the symbol. “Every metaphor has a meaning and it points out something but it points only itself. In this respect a symbol witnesses the existence of something else which it mentions”. (Лосев, 1982) The term “symbol” first appeared in Old Greek. It came from the verb “Symballo”, which means to coincide, to combine, to unite, and the corresponding noun of this verb “Symballon” indicates the result of the combination. ( Лосев, 1982) Pestova has distinguished three meaningful groups, which more often become symbols: (Лосев,1976 ) 1. The names of natural phenomena, weather 2. The articles of everyday use 3. The phenomena which are invented in the mind of human beings, but actually don’t exist. These are “symbols proper”. Pestova has also classified those ideological spheres which are very often expressed in symbols: 1. Psychical statement (love, joy, torture, etc.) 2. Power authority, social system 3. War, peace 4. Life, death, destiny 5. Marriage, friendship 6. Shame and glory The names of the natural phenomena or weather usually symbolize psychical statement (Sun – joy, rainbow – hope), relations in family and society. The articles of everyday use symbolize social relations, war, peace (bread and salt – hospitality, peace). And the phenomena invented by the people symbolize death, destiny, life (phoenix – life perfection). The correlation between the writer and his work is very interesting. The writer enriches his speech with images, symbols and figurative language which determines each writer’s individuality and style. Writers choose how and when to use figurative language: for instance, metaphors, apostrophe, personification, etc. Image is the basic way of expressing reality in art. In general it is the way of expressing the reality in human consciousness. With the help of images the author makes the reader a participant to his feelings, emotions and worldview. Thus, we can say that the system of images plays an important role in the process of the thematic and ideological development of a work of verbal art, and in stylistic analyses images are taken as important particles on the whole. Speaking about image in art we can see that the ways of its realizations vary. For the architecture or sculpture imagination becomes something materialized. While for the writer, imagination turns into words giving rise to different images. In literature images are embodied in words, sentences and in language in general, because only through language what is in the mind and psychology of the writer can be expressed. The artistic images can be classified into inner and outer ones (materialized or just embodied in some matter). Inner images are subjective ones created by the writer’s, musician’s, sculpture’s, etc, vivid imagination. Outer images have materialized results. For architecture the materialized result is the building, for sculpture is the sculpture, and for the writer it is the written work. A work of verbal art is not just something written which is only for admiration or entertainment. A real work of art must have a certain impact on the mind, understanding, soul and even lifestyle of the reader. Through his work the author expresses his worldview, his views on the reality of life, his experience, etc. Through his work he can express his views and ideas freely. In order to achieve the expected result he uses different stylistic and expressive means in order to create the atmosphere and the image needed to make certain influence on readers. A stylistic device is a means that serves to create additional expressive, evaluative, emotional connotations. In fact we deal with the intended substitution of the existing names approved by long usage and fixed in dictionaries, prompted by the speaker’s subjective original view and evaluation of things. Each type of intended substitution results in a stylistic device called also a trope . Images are words that appeal to the five senses: touch, taste, sight, hearing and smell. When someone reads a piece of written work it usually takes him to a new unknown world. Gradually, by the end of the written work this world becomes so familiar. This is due to the images which give us certain feelings and senses towards the writer’s intentions. When an image turns into a symbol, it passes to the personal or social sphere. The image develops and gains symbolic value and when it becomes a symbol it can even rule the worldview, lifestyle and behavior of human beings. /Лосев 1970, Арутюнова 1988/. Symbols in the works of J. Updike In our work we will illustrate imagery in John Updike’s works: “Rabbit, Run”, “Rabbit is Rich” and “The Poorhouse Fair”. In the examples mentioned below we would like to emphasize emotional and sensual side of images stated above. 1. “He drives around the mountain in company with a few hissing trailer trucks. Sunrise, an orange strip crushed against a far hill, flares between their wheels”. (Updike,1965,p.185) In this example the author describes sunrise. For this description he makes use of the following words and expressions as “orange strip”, “to crush”, “to flare between the wheels”. At first sight these words have nothing to do with sunrise, but due to these words and word expressions the reader can experience the same emotions and feelings as the writer does while creating these images. Through the word denoting the color “orange” the reader senses the brightness, the warmth of the day; one can even feel and smell the warm air in the atmosphere. “An orange strip crushed against a far hill” in this part one can hear how the orange light crushes against a far hill with a loud noise. With the help of “Flares between their wheels” the reader can feel the whole atmosphere filled with “orange sunrise” which shines through the wheels of the car. 2. “His face shows such surprise at the collision, and he is so elaborately apologetic, that Ruth laughs; her laugh rings on the street like a handful of changes thrown down”. (Updike,1965,p.199) 3. “She laughs again, the coins thrown down, though he feels ashamed of what he has said, she is so good – natured and maybe was pretty then”. (Updike,1965.p.200) In the following two parts Updike describes the laugh of the girl comparing it with the rings of the coins. Here the reader can hear the coins ring on the ground and even he can touch the laugh of the girl: laughter is compared with a handful of changes or coins (in the second passage) and if one can touch and feel the changes and coins he can also feel the laughter of the girl. This is what the writer wanted the reader to feel. “He decides to forget it. He draws scalding water into the sink and puts the pan in to soak. The breath steam is like a whisper in a tomb.”( Updike,1965.p.240) In these lines the reader feels the coldness and some kind of a shudder which is felt being next to a dead man. “The breath steam is like a whisper in a tomb” sentence sounds in a very low voice, one can even have a feeling of reading it in a low voice, especially the words “whisper” and “tomb” sound very symbolic and it seems as if the hero has decided to forget something very serious and at the same time sad. But we can also feel that he does not succeed in forgetting “it” because it can be heard in “the steam of his breath” which is like a “whisper in a tomb”. In all these sentences the five senses are illustrated with the help of the images. Reading the following passages one can surely feel the presence of certain feelings, emotions and senses in the images. Thus we come to the conclusion that images are not just beautiful and right chosen words; they are impressive and alive, they help readers share the feelings and thoughts of the writer. They make reader see and feel the things in another way, in a new and figurative way. Images are not created only for fiction. The ability to reveal and understand images in fiction help people evaluate things surrounding them in a new way. Images are like a puzzle when it is not enough just to find and see them around us, one should also feel and understand what is not on the surface. Title as a symbol In J. Updike’s works the title itself is an image. Titles are usually symbolic images. The title is something more than just the name of a novel or a poem. With the study of the title as an inseparable element of the novel we can predict the main conflict, the duration and even the solution to the conflict, as well as the intentions of the author. Generally the information gained from the title is retained and confirmed in the whole work. Words used as titles usually acquire new shades of meaning and the titles usually evaluate and globalize the whole theme of the novel. Thus in the analysis of the works of John Updike we find it essential to start with the study of the titles. We consider the title as the first image in J. Updike’s works. As far as the title “Rabbit, Run” is considered it should be mentioned that at first sight simple but at the same time complex and metaphoric title “Rabbit, Run” has nothing to do with the animal “rabbit”. The word “rabbit” does not refer to an animal but to the hero of the novel. In this title the use of the word “run” is not accidental. It is characteristic of rabbits (as it is known rabbits always run). The title itself implies that it is a novel about some creature who runs. And here is the first conflict “Running Rabbit”. Rabbits always run because they are afraid of something. They don’t run to do something in their lives, or to help someone, they just run to save themselves and never someone else. Rabbits are always frightened, they always run to save their own skins and though being mammals mother rabbits eat their young ones. Looking at rabbits one can feel pity and sorrow, and at the same time a wish to protect them at the same time not feeling safe and protected next to them. Thus, from the title it becomes obvious that the novel is about a week, frightened, selfish and irresponsible person, who within the entire novel causes problems, but never has the courage to solve them. He always runs away from his own life, from his problems and the people surrounding him. Thus, the above mentioned title and also the other ones, such as “Rabbit at Rest”, “Rabbit is Rich”, “Rabbit Redux”, are succeeded metaphors created to characterize one and the same hero. Besides the title of the novel “rabbit” itself is an image. “Rabbit” is the name of the main hero of the novel Harry Angstrom. “Rabbit” was his nickname given to him when he was still a boy. 1. “… the breath of white face, the pallor of his blue irises, and a nervous flutter under his brief nose as he stabs a cigarette into his mouth martially explains the nickname which was given to him when he was a boy…”.( Updike,1965.p.151) Here we see that even his appearance corresponds to his nickname. With this image Updike prompts the reader to see in Harry the qualities, mainly liabilities, that his nickname implies. Throughout the novel, some physical hints are dropped, “… His upper lips nibbles back from his teeth in self pleasure…” “…Rabbit stealthily approaches his old home on the grass, hopping the little barberry hedge… ”. But, besides, the appearance he is also fond of running. He runs not only because he is a basketball player, but also because he avoids responsibility. He was always afraid (like a rabbit) of the people surrounding him, his own life and even himself. But being frightened at the same time he succeeds in spoiling other people’s lives (like rabbits that eat their young ones). In his work J. Updike also makes use of word formation as a means of creating an image. First of all, it is the word “Angstrom”, the hero’s surname. The word “Angstrom” consists of the word “angst” and ending “- rom”. The word “angst” is a German noun which means a feeling of fear, especially about the conditions of the world. In its turn it helps to express the inner feelings and emotions of the hero. He has features typical of poor rabbits but at the same time he knows that he is to be blamed for his and not only his spoiled life. But he does nothing to improve his state. 2. “The last quarter of a basketball game used to carry him into this world; you ran not as the crowd thought for the sake of the score bur for yourself, in a kind of idleness. There was you and sometimes the ball and then the hole, the high perfect hole with its pretty skirt of net. It was you, just you and that fringed ring, and sometimes it came down right to your lips it seemed and sometimes it stayed away, hard and remote and small. It seemed silly for the crowd to applaud or groan over what had already felt in your fingers or even in your arms as you braced to shoot or for the matter in your eyes: when he was hot he could see the separate threads wound into the strings looping the hoop. ” The nervous motion that marks the rabbit imagery is also part of the basketball game. Rabbit, a basketball star had difficulties because he has known adulation and success in his immaturity and has made them an impossible idea for his adulthood. Basketball is not really a game for him but a model for existence. Basketball was of great importance to him, and all other things and even other people occupy the second place in his life. Especially from the following lines it becomes obvious what he values above all. 3. “I once played a game real well. I really did. And after you are first – rate at something, no matter what, it kind of takes the kick out of being second – rate. And that little thing Janice and I had going, boy, it was really second – rate.”( Updike,1965.p.246) The rabbit image is appropriate for guiding the characterization in the novel, while the image of the basketball game directs the action. It is not accidental that Updike begins the novel with the alley basketball scene where Rabbit runs. Harry Angstrom, pushing his way into a casual teenagers’ game, is nostalgically and pathetically trying to recapture the fame of his faded high school career. Only half – mindful of the resentment he fires in the outclassed boys, he loses himself briefly in the illusion of his past minor glory: Rabbit sees himself as an ex – hero. In a sense, the whole novel, expresses his restless, mindless eagerness to become all over again the high scorer, the champion, the darling of the crowds. Since basketball has been his model for life, life itself is ultimately just a game. The hero as a metaphor Updike makes a strong accent on the inner world of his hero. The hero is most of the time silent, he neither speaks about his feelings and inner world, nor expresses his attitude towards life. Instead images speak on his feelings and thoughts. With such words as “trap”, “wire”, “hole” the author describes the life of his hero. “Rabbit freezes, standing looking at his faint yellow shadow on the white door that leads to the hall, and senses he is in a trap. It seems certain. He goes out.”( Updike,1965 .p.162) In this passage “faint yellow shadow” and “white door” impart the reader a feeling of coldness. The expression “freezing faint shadow” shows the inner state of Rabbit. He is already tired of his life and he has no power to continue struggling against the problems. The word “trap” has a specific function in this passage. When an animal or a man finds himself in a trap the first thing he does is trying to run out of the trap, to make himself free of enemies: problems. It is clear from the context that Rabbit has some problems with his wife and he is going to his mother’s place to bring back their child. We have the full picture of the events that are going to happen after. “…senses he is in a trap. It seems certain. He goes out.” It is certain. He goes out. But he is not going to come back to his “trap”. Going out of the house Rabbit experiences certain inexplicable feelings, and the following lines come to describe his inner state at that moment. “Listening to the wires as if you could hear what people were saying, what all that secret adult world was about. The insulators giant blue eggs in a windy nest.”( Updike, 1965.p.163) “Listening to the wires” shows that he feels himself in a net. If one looks up to the wires he will see that the wires form some kind of a net. This state of feelings is quite like the one we described above. In the first example he feels himself in a “trap” and now he feels himself in a “net”. At the same time he is eager to learn something from this “net”, that is to learn “what all that secret adult world was about.” Rabbit is about twenty six years old person, who is married and has a child. This means that he is not a teenager anymore; he is an adult who must know at least what the adulthood is and where he is going to in his life. But as it turns out that he is unaware of the adult world which is some kind of a secret for him. And he wants to know what the adult world is about. Thus, the above mentioned lines enable us to perceive the inner state of Rabbit; he does not know what the adult world is, he feels himself as a teenager, we may also assume that he is afraid of the adult world which will make him take new responsibilities. “Once inside, as she reaches for the light switch, he knocks her arm down, pulls her around, and kisses her. It’s insanity, he wants to crush her, a little gauge inside her ribs doubles and redoubles his need for pressure, just pure pressure, there is no love in it, love that glances and glides along the skin, he is unconscious of their skins, it is her heart he wants to grind into his own, to comfort her completely.” (Updike, 1965.p.218) The whole passage creates the image of “animal - nature” of the hero: Rabbit. In these lines the author describes a scene of love, but the hero’s behavior shows that he does not think about the feelings of Ruth (his lover), he just wants to do it for nothing, just because he wants it. “There is no love in it, love that…” this line comes to prove what has been stated above. It is his animal instinct that prevails. “Oh you moron go home. Home is the hole…”(Updike, 1965.p.270) One night the hero, Rabbit, has a nightmare. He sees nearly all his life. His wife who he left, his lover, his home, etc. and he also hears the following words. “Oh you moron go home”. But at the same time when he hears these words it occurs to him that “Home is the hole…”. Here “Hole” is the image for “home”. Rabbit sees his home in the hole, consequently it is a place where he does not want to go, for “hole” symbolizes darkness, discomfort. For most people home is a place where they wish to be, to have a rest, to feel comfort and protection. There is also a saying “Home! Sweet home!”. From the passage it becomes clear that for Rabbit “hole” is an unpleasant place. The above mentioned three images help to create the intended image. He is at a loss. From the examples which were discussed above, we can come to the conclusion that images play pivotal role in the development of the thematic structure of the novel “Rabbit, Run”. Every image helps the reader to be involved in the development of the hero’s character and the further actions. In “Poorhouse Fair” “fair” is a symbolic image for the whole novel. The life in the Poorhouse is very boring and the inhabitants are bored with their monotonous life. During the whole year the old people are looking forward to the very day when they will make a fair and they will have guests from the country. On that day they can feel themselves as complete and useful people since they make goods for the fair themselves, with their own hands. So “fair” is the image of the meaning of life in the boring walls of the poorhouse. If “fair” is somehow “hope” for a change in the lives of old people “rain” is an unexpected “guest” for them. “Rising as early as Hook, he had looked at the same sky and seen nothing but promise of a faultless day for the fair.” ( J. Updike,1965.p.12) So we can notice that they are trying to forecast the weather and they wish to have faultless weather and day for the fair. Otherwise stated fair is a rare and single joy in their lives and they didn’t want to have it spoiled. In another paragraph we can foresee the coming rain. “Despite the low orange sun, still wet from its dawning, crescents of mist like webs of tent caterpillars adhered in the crotches of the hills.” (Updike,1965,p.5) The sun is described here as low and orange; usually the sun is like this before the rain. From the following lines we can surely infer that “rain” symbolizes broken and unrevealed wishes, as the fair cannot take place in the rain. “Beyond and beyond the further hills, he knew ran the Delaware. His life had been spention that river, white in the morning, yellow at noon, black by supper. On the other side had stood a green rim: Pennsylvania.” (Updike,1965,p.5) As it has been mentioned “The Poorhouse Fair” is a novel about old people who live in a poorhouse. This passage describes the past life of Greg one of the inhabitants of the poorhouse. “White in the morning, yellow at noon, black by supper” is the description of the river which somehow coincides with the description of hero’s life. This “white in the morning” is the beginning of his life. It means his life was like a white sheet of paper when he was born. At the beginning his life was a clear paper where he was going to paint his future life. “Yellow at noon” symbolizes the duration of his life. Yellow color is connected with the hope and the desire to build his life in bright colors, that is to have a happy life. “Black by supper” is the end of his life. Especially in the poorhouse the hero’s life seems black, hopeless and without any joy. “The weather of this day would be, he felt, a judgment on his work; these people, having yielded all authority, looked beyond themselves for everything – sufficient food, adequate shelter, and fair weather on their one day of profit and celebration.” (Updike,1965,p.33) The passage expresses the thoughts of the prefect of the poorhouse, Conner, who was hated by the old. He was always eating against the old people’s will. And he was sure that on that day he will receive his judgment; either it will rain and he will be blamed for the rain, or they will have a fine day, a wonderful fair and the old people will like him. Anyway the weather was against him, as it was going to rain. In the end he was punished by the old who throw stones at him. It was something unexpected for him. These examples of images are some kind of a hint given us from the writer to understand and feel the inner situation of his heroes: the old people in the poorhouse. Images create a guideline with the help of which we become closer to their hopes, intentions, expectations, and in the end help us to “foresee” the further situation. In the novel “Rabbit Is Rich” Updike mentions the idea that women are holes, you put one thing in after another and it’s never enough, you stuff your entire life in there and they smile that crooked little sad smile and are sorry you couldn’t have done better. In this passage the writer compares “women” with “a hole” which is difficult to fill in. This shows the vain efforts of the hero to do something for his wife and women in general. This comparison carries a strong resemblance to the Cask of Danaides from Mythology. The Cask of the Danaides cannot be filled with anything, similarly it is difficult to satisfy the desire and wishes of women. “The shining faintly freckled flesh of her shoulders and top arms and the bushy wanton abundance of her browny – red many – colored hair, carelessly bundled. A buried bell rings. She has blue eyes in deep sockets and the silence of a girl from the country used to letting men talk while she holds a sweet – and – sour secret in her mouth, sucking it.” (Updike,1981,p.14) In this passage the use of the expression “A buried bell rings” is just to the point. This expression hints the reader that some kind of secret had been buried and tried to forget. But the bell is to ring and even when it is buried. In other words the writer wants to emphasize to the idea that everything can be resurrected, that one day the past may appear in present. The people, things and responsibilities, from which the hero tried to run away and forget, now stand in front of him. “Sweet – and – sour secret in her mouth, sucking it” the secret gradually becomes obvious, , but she is “sucking it”, i.e. trying to hide it. Thus, these two images help us to understand the past of the hero is in front of his eyes. He tries to run away from it, but the past itself intermingles with the present. “They had children once, but the infant daughter Becky died. It was his wife’s fault. The entire squeezed and cut – down shape of his life is her fault; at every turn she has been a wall to his freedom.” (Updike,1981,p.42) In this passage the reader can feel how the author reveals the inner world of the hero: Rabbit. He avoids responsibility and it can be seen in the following words “she has been a wall to his freedom”. Here “the wall” is the image of his “limited” life. He wanted to achieve something but didn’t succeed in it, so he is blaming the wall which is the image of his wife. “Janice stands up to him scarcely flinching, armored in her country – club tan. “He is our son, Harry, and we are not going to turn away a guest of his because she is female in sex. If it was a boyfriend of Nelson’s you wouldn’t be at all this excited, it’s the fact that it’s a girlfriend of Nelson’s that’s upsetting you, a girlfriend of Nelson’s. If it was a girlfriend of yours, the upstairs wouldn’t be too crowded for you. This is my son and I want him here if he wants to be here.” (Updike,1981,p.42) In this passage the writer did not use any metaphor or figurative language, but here we can find images which can be perceived if the passage is read with proper intonation. The words or the parts of the words which are bolded should be read stressed. The passage reflects the conflict between the father and the son. We can see that Father is jealous of his son’s youth and freedoms. He is not married, has no responsibilities and can have young girlfriends. “Rabbit is Rich” In the novel “Rabbit is Rich” we can come across a number of symbolic images. One of them is “water” which symbolizes the place where the little daughter of Rabbit has died. During the whole novel he couldn’t look into the water. Every time he looked into it he saw there his daughter. In the whole novel Rabbit has vision of ghosts from his past. He hears his mother call his name “Hassy”. “Mom’s voice clear as a whisper from the corner of the room saying Hassy, a name as dead as the boy that was called that is dead”. Here we see that he wanted to forget his past and the name by which he was called “Hassy” (his mother used to call him by this name), and this comes to prove once again that the past intermingles with the present. With the help of images we can notice the existence of the main common line between the two novels “Rabbit, Ran” and “Rabbit is Rich”. Besides the fact that we deal with the same hero we also notice some parts of the same conflict stated in “Rabbit, Run”. Such image as “hole” brings us back to the idea of isolated state of the hero. The “hole” remains one of his main fears as it is associated with the “home” in “Rabbit, Run” and in “Rabbit is Rich” with “women” his wife. The problem of perceiving, understanding and interpreting a work of verbal art has always been in the center of philologists’ attention. The complex nature of a work of verbal art is closely connected with the individuality of the author. Images created by authors play an important role in a work of verbal art and contribute greatly to its interpretation. The way authors represent the objective reality is dependent on their own life experience. In this article we have made an attempt to study one of the most widely used elements of a work of verbal art which accounts for its aesthetic value. This element is the image. Our article tries to show that image plays a pivotal role in the interpretation and understanding of this or that work. They are alive and contain certain information which is intended to be perceived by readers. One of the most interesting features of images is that they appeal to the five senses: touch, taste, sight, hearing and smell. “An orange strip crushed against a far hill” “…her laugh rings on the street like a handful of changes thrown down” in “Rabbit, Run”, and “A buried bell rings”, “Sweet – and – sour secret in her mouth, sucking it” in “Rabbit is Rich”. This gives the reader an opportunity to devour himself in the written work and interpret in his own way the created images which express the writer’s vivid imagination. Besides, the intentional activation of senses done by the writer gives the reader an opportunity to perceive the text not only on the verbal level but also to penetrate into the inner world of the text. Thus, it confirms the idea that the word is not only a sign, but also involves the worldview and sensual world of the writer. The language is rich with images, metaphors and rhyme of verse. The choice is accounted for by the fact that J. Updike has unique individual taste, style and language. Our article tries to show that images are the individual creations of the author in the works of verbal art. It is their own and unique way of expressing the objective reality in the written work and their own choice of interpreting this or that phenomenon in a certain way. Images can be found anywhere, including our everyday life. In spite of this they gain new shades of meanings in a work of verbal art influenced by the writer’s individuality. In the present paper we have made an attempt to show that images have a lot to pass to the reader and while reading anything it is not enough to read what is on the surface, but it is important to read between the lines, to learn to find the hidden idea of the text and what is more important not to read the figures of speech and metaphors just as means used by the author to make his language more beautiful. They have hidden information in them and the reader should be sophisticated enough to understand the reason why they are used. Bibliography 1. Арнольд И. В. «Стилистика декодирования», 1974 2. Арнольд И. В. «Стилистика современного английского языка», Москва 1990 3. Арутюнова Н. Д. «Теория метафоры» М., 1990 4. Лосев А. Ф. «Знак, Символ, Миф» МГУ, 1982 5. Лосев А. Ф. «Проблема символа и реалистическое искуство » М. «Искуство», 1976 6. Robert Detweiler “John Updike”, Twayne’s United States Authors Series, 1984 7. “Style in Language”, Thomas A. Sebok, 1960 8. John Updike “The Poorhouse Fair. Rabbit, Run.” Alfred A. Knopf, New York, 1965 9. John Updike “Rabbit is Rich” Alfred A. Knopf, New York, 1981