Human_Resource

KEYWORDS: Work, Motivation, Performance, Rewards, Needs, Interests, Goals, Expectations, Equity, Leadership, Management, Satisfaction, Success INTRODUCTION My report begins with the background, definition and qualified roles of an Estate Agent and an Estate Agency. It is important to go further with an explanation of some of the theories used by different commentators such as Abraham Maslow and Herzberg, of the meaning and factors of Motivation especially in an organisation or a working environment. The Qualities of an Agent, its definition and the role of a leader or manager is clearly elaborated in this essay. ESTATE AGENCY An Estate Agency, by law, is a unique form of selling or renting a property, an agent is simply a representative of a property but not the actual owner. An Agent/Agency can simply be defined as a business or person that deals with the selling, renting, or management of homes, lands and other buildings, although an agent that specialises in renting is also called a Letting Agent. The main essential skills of an estate agent, is having the qualities of a good communication skill. An estate agency is a business that deals with communicating with people everyday such as potential buyers and sellers, solicitors of which have to be communicated with effectively. They aim at giving customers an appropriate advice on properties to choose and also enables them have a discount on properties as opposed to an individual approaching the company itself without going through an agent. QUALITIES OF AN ESTATE AGENT. The task of an Estate Agent involves Negotiation and Valuation. Negotiation: This involves pitching the right speech to the individual interested in the property and making them realise and understand the difference between going through your market than the market of others. Valuation: This deals with the comparison between property condition within the market in the area and making the right choice. Estate Agents engage in the marketing of properties available for sale and a solicitor or licensed conveyance is involved to create legal documents. They liaise with banks, building societies, mortgage brokers and other estate agencies during transaction. There are several agencies involved in leasing and managing properties on behalf of clients. Property Legislation amongst towns in the U.Ksuch as England and Wales are not the same as that of Scotland. Sales of properties are handled in a different way. Roles of an estate agent may be divided into two, whereby one specializes in the valuation of contracts and the other deals with negotiation. The system of The Residential Property in Scotland is handled differently, unlike the system of England, most sales are handled by a solicitor and types of sales are differentiated with the specialty of the agency. Nevertheless, work involved is similar, such as: Collecting rent payments and managing the property. Remaining current with decor around the area. Keeping an eye on the proceeds of sales. Deriving satisfaction of the price for both parties (seller and buyer) Marketing and promoting properties for sale Compiling home information packs, contacting qualified home inspectors to complete relevant sections. A Key Worker works as an employee in a public sector who works within the governing body and provide an essential service for the general public. The generic term “key worker” is often used in the United Kingdom in the context of those workers who may find it difficult to buy property in the area where they work. Presently, It has become more prominent as the rise of house prices result in a gap between household income and the cost of housing. A couple of local authorities and other public sector bodies especially in the city of London where a “key worker living scheme” has come into existence to help reduce the cost and to find a suitable accommodation for workers which fits their situation. STYLES OF LEADERSHIP Authoritarian / Autocratic Is where the focus of power is with the manager, and all interactions within the group move towards the manager Democratic is where the focus of power is more with the group as a whole and there is greater interaction within the group. The leadership functions are shared with members of the group and the manger is more part of a team. Laissez Faire (Genuine) Is where the managers observe that the members of the group are working well on their individually. The manager consciously makes a decision to pass the focus of power to members. CAUSES OF CHANGES IN CURRENT DECLINE House prices are falling Lower completion volumes exist Pressure from online estate agents is causing pressure on fees. MOTIVATION CONCEPTS INTRINSIC MOTIVATION This form of motivation comes from the joy or love for a task or activity itself. For example, students can be intrinsic if they are interested in mastering a topic rather than just rote-learning hoping to get good grades. EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION. EXTRINSIC Motivation comes from the external part of the performer. Money is the most visible and obvious example, Nevertheless, threat and punishment is also considered to be an extrinsic motivation. In an intriguing topic done by Green and Lepper, a study of children who were extremely rewarded for drawing with felt tip pens later demonstrated lack of interest in playing with the pens again Research Property Derivatives Market Suggests Steep Falls Ahead Date Average House Price % Change Feb-08 £193,448 N/A Feb-09 £176,038 -9.0% Feb-10 £168,300 -13.0% Feb-11 £166,365 -14.0% Feb-12 £164,431 -15.0% Feb-13 £170,234 -12.0% Feb-14 £172,169 -11.0% Feb-15 £183,776 -5.0% Feb-16 £187,645 -3.0% Feb-17 £187,645 -3.0% Feb-18 £193,448 0.0% Source: DTZ / Tullet Prebon UK HPI Forward Prices – 20th March 2008, cited on 17/08/09 brightsale.co.uk MOTIVATION IN WORK PLACE A number of commentators have suggested that motivation is the number one problem facing business today. (Watson 1994). It is also generally recognised that companies can gain competitive advantage and maximise profits through motivated productive employees and employees can in many instances gain highly sought after work –related rewards and benefits. Many current business managers and organisational leaders acknowledge that they must understand and fully appreciate what motivates employees in order to attain high levels of performance and improved productivity. Furthermore, demographic changes in the workplace as well as technological advances and globalisation are all major factors which have impacted directly and indirectly on employee motivation and satisfaction within the workplace. Within academic research and the industrial relations literature there exists a wide range of theoretical frameworks which have attempted to define and explain the concepts of motivation and satisfaction within the workplace. Drawn mainly from the psychological tradition the different approaches have taken contradictory and opposing standpoints in the varied attempts to explore and develop this complex and critically important area. Motivation in the context of work has been defined at the most basic level as ‘involving individual behaviours directed towards realising a goal, it is about motives and needs’. Work motivation is often considered “as a set of energetic forces that originate both within as well as beyond an individual’sbeing to initiate work-related behaviour and to determine its form, direction, intensity and duration”. (Pinder 1998:11). Scientific theories of motivation In the early part of the twentieth century, mainly from 1900 to 1920s, the study of workplace motivation was dominated by engineers and was presented within a scientific management framework. (Taylor 1911, Fayol 1929, 1949, Urwick 1929, Barnard 1938). Essentially, it was generally perceived that money was the primary, if not the sole source of workers motivation. In the following two decades mainly as a result of research and various surveys conducted by organisational psychologists the focus shifted from what was considered the extrinsic factor of money to intrinsic factors linked to job satisfaction such as job security, recognition and status. (Viteles 1932). Within this perspective it was assumed that job satisfaction predicts job performance. The research conclusions at this time were that workers can be happy in the workplace for reasons unrelated to job performance. Individual satisfaction in the workplace was perceived to be linked to positive relations with co-workers, good fringe benefits and nice physical working conditions. (Brayfield and Crockett 1955). Content (Needs) theories of motivation During the 1960s research and interest in explaining and influencing motivation in the workplace really expanded linked to the work of two key ‘content’ (need) theorists, Maslow (1943) and Herzberg (Herzberg, Mausner and Snyderman 1959). These perspectives focus on internal drives within individuals which energise and direct behaviour towards the satisfaction of individual needs. Maslows Hierarchy of Need Theory developed in 1942 and later published in 1954, is widely known across the social sciences and presents a five-tier hierarchy linked to five levels of needs beginning with the most by basic need first and the most sophisticated need last. Within this framework aim and goal of all individuals is to satisfy their lower order needs, physiological and safety, before they focus on satisfying higher order needs for affiliation, esteem and self-actualisation. Maslow was at the time working as a clinical psychologist and this theory was based on his observations of patients. Maslows work has endured, stood the test of time and remains influential because it incorporates a very basic and simple philosophy for managers in the work place. Essentially, it encourages managers to identify what motivates employees at each of the five levels, link this to their performance level and develop a reward strategy. Having stated this, Maslows work has been criticised and developed by other commentators mainly on the grounds that individual needs do not fit neatly into categories and do not always present in a linear way. Most importantly, it is generally acknowledged that there is no clear relationship between needs and behaviour. Despite these criticisms Maslows work has been drawn upon to develop management and leadership projects linked to workplace motivation in relation to job re-design, pay and reward incentives. Herzberg’s motivator-hygiene theory developed in 1959 is closely linked to Maslow’s hierarchy of needs but seeks to identify and specify individual motivation in the work setting. Essentially, this is concerned with situational factors which facilitate or inhibit employee development. For Herzberg there are two critically important elements in understanding motivation, motivators and hygiene factors. Motivators are individual frameworks such as ‘personal responsibility’, ‘achieving recognition’, ‘opportunities for personal growth’. Hygiene factors are broader situational factors such as ‘money’, ‘job security’, ‘working conditions’, ‘relationships with colleagues’ and ‘company policies’. For Herzberg in contrast to Maslow the key to motivation in the work place was not the individual but enrichment of the work environment so that it becomes conducive to self-motivation. According to Herzberg meeting lower level needs only stops individuals from becoming dissatisfied. Addressing higher level needs fully engages and motivates individuals within the work environment. From this perspective, managers need to consider reviewing and developing the essence of the work and job contents. Job satisfaction derives from critical factors such as feedback, recognition, task variety and autonomy. These all help to develop individual skills, abilities and careers. A further perspective which also drew heavily on and sought to extend Maslows hierarchy of needs is Alderfer’s ERG theory. Within this approach needs are categorised into three rather than five. The three types of needs are Existence, Relatedness and Growth. Existence needs are broadly the same as Maslows physiological and safety needs. Relatedness needs are relational and link to Maslows esteem and belongingness. Growth needs link to achievement of potential and relate to Maslows esteem and self-actualisation needs. From this perspective like Herzberg lower level needs do not have to be satisfied before higher level needs can be realised and facilitate motivation. However, if upper level needs are not addressed individuals can regress and this will inevitably affect lower level needs and subsequently impact on motivation. It is worth briefly mentioning two other content theory of motivation perspectives McClelland’s learned needs theory (socially acquired needs) and B.F. Skinners work on behaviour modification. Within the learned needs framework individuals develop needs from their culture. Three key needs are presented, affiliation described as a desire to form friendships, power identified as a desire to influence and control the environment, achievement linked with a desire to be responsible, devise aims and goals and receive feedback on performance. The essence in the learned needs theory is that any one of these needs facilitates motivational behaviour that leads to satisfaction. Again, managers need to be aware where individuals in the workplace have developed one or more of these characteristics and how jobs can be organised to ensure that the individual is fully satisfied. Skinners work on behaviour modification or behaviourism also emerged during this period and had popular appeal. It is perceived as similar to Maslows need hierarchy theory. Behaviourism, is based on two key principles which are that the mind has no causal effect on behaviour and determinism, namely that the environment alone shapes individual behaviour. According to Skinner, a person’s response, “operating on the environment, increases in frequency contingent upon the presence of reinforcers, and decreases contingent upon the presence of punishers or the withdrawal of a reinforcer immediately after the response occurs”. (Skinner 1964:1385). Through the control of environmental contingencies behaviourists such as Skinner sought to show how an individuals behaviour can be easily modified by others. Content or needs theories generally assume that motivation in the workplace is determined by money or social needs or psychological development and satisfaction. The above perspectives clearly indicate that individual motivation is a complex and sophisticated phenomenon which emerges from a range of factors linked to individual, environmental and psychological processes. By implication many content theories assume that reward and performance management can be standardised and rationalised without fully appreciating individual and environmental influences. *Process (cognitive)* theories of motivation The mid nineteen sixties are generally regarded as the period of the cognitive revolution in psychology. Cognitive or process theories of motivation shifted the focus from earlier research on the individual and environment to individual decision making. These perspectives are derived from cognitive theories which begin from the starting point that individual behaviour is the result of conscious decision-making processes. It then seeks to explore and explain influences which produce, direct and maintain individual behaviour. The key process theories of motivation are expectancy theory, equity theory, goal-setting theory and reinforcement theory. In 1964 Victor Vroom drawing on earlier research conducted in the 1930s sought to apply behavioural concepts directly to work motivation. According to Vroom individuals in the work context select behaviours which they believe will enable them to achieve specific goals and desired outcomes. In determining work effort “individuals are likely to consider : Valence, which is the extent to which the expected outcome is attractive or unattractive. Instrumentality, or the degree to which they believe that a given level of performance will result in the certain achievement of the outcome or desired rewards. Expectancy, meaning the degree to which the employee believes that putting in effort will lead to a given level of performance- Is the type of effort appropriate to achieving the goal' “(Beardwell and Claydon 2007:496). These three factors choice, effort and persistence, frequently referred to as VIE are presented as key combined determinants of motivation. Expectancy theory links an individuals motivation to apply their knowledge and skills as a thoughtful, rational decision making process. Within this perspective an individual motivation can be influenced by others in the context of providing outcomes that are valued by the individual. Lawler and Porter (1970) drawing on Vroom’s expectancy model argued that money can motivate employees (a)if the amount offered is valued (b) if individuals believe that their performance will lead to the attainment of a desired amount(c) if they believe their effort will result in them performing effectively . In contrast to Vroom this model also suggests that where there are substantive issues regarding the individuals abilities increased effort does not always lead to improved performance. Expectancy theory has been criticised for attempting to predict individual ‘choice of effort’. However there exists no explicit or specific framework in this model which defines in precise terms effort or outcomes. Another perspective linked to cognitive theories of motivation has been presented by Adams(1963) in a framework referred to as Equity theory. Adams research was based on observations at the General Electric Company (GEC) in America. Briefly, this theory suggests that feelings of equity/inequity result from a cognitive appraisal of individual outcomes relative to individual inputs, which in turn are relative to comparisons with others. In sharp contrast to previous research Adamsbelieved that there is a distinct correlation between ‘affect’, individual feelings and individual behaviour. Individual motivation and performance in the work place from this perspective is influenced by the individual’s perception of whether the rewards are consistent and fair in relation to other employees. Inputs are perceived as costs and include those skills and abilities the individual brings to the workplace, whereas outputs are benefits, the rewards for the inputs such as pay, promotion and recognition.Individuals within the workplace frequently make subjective assessments of their self worth and performance in comparison with colleagues and develop tensions and feelings of inequity where they believe there exists a mis-match between their individual inputs and outputs. Adamsproposed six options for employees: “modify inputs Seek to modify outputs Modify perception of self Modify perception of comparator Change comparator Leave the situation” (Beardwell and Claydon 2007:496/497 According to Adamsaccepting and incorporating one or a mixture of these options helps the individual to restore balance and equity. A number of criticisms have been made of equity theory firstly, in acknowledging that it is not a fully comprehensive model and cannot be applied to every individual or every situation and secondly human sensitivities are complex and varied linked to a wide range of emotional, behavioural and environmental issues/concerns. This framework or model does however have significant value in highlighting that any performance management and reward system to have legitimacy must be transparent and consistent. A final cognitive approach to the study of motivation in the work setting has been presented by Locke in 1968 and is referred to as Goal Setting theory. This model is simply based on the individuals’ intention to perform. After conducting a series of laboratory experiments Locke put forward three propositions: Specific high goals lead to higher performance in comparison with no goals or vague goals Assuming goal commitment the high the goal the higher the performance Variables such as financial incentives, involvement in decision making, competition and feedback will increase individual performance when linked to the framing and development of specific high goals. Locke then later collaborated in a number of field experiments with Latham and Locke (1975). Although it began as an effective motivational technique for improving performance in the workplace goal setting subsequently developed into a formally widely respected theory and model. This framework provided evidence based on laboratory and field experiments which specified the mechanisms by which goals affect performance and identified moderators and boundary conditions. Goals became benchmarks for individuals to evaluate the effectiveness of performance. Tasks were positively experienced when they were linked to goals that individuals achieved. In addition appropriate feedback linked to specific goals set and achieved are critical in motivating individuals and improving performance. “Goal-based theories of motivation emphasise the importance of feedback in order to: increase the employee’s feeling of achievement; increase the sense of personal responsibility for work; reduce uncertainty; Refine performance.”(Beardwell and Claydon 2007:498) A major criticism of goal based theory has been the lack of systematic arrangements for managers or leaders to provide feedback to individual workers. Generally, feedback is provided when individuals are under-performing or during annual appraisal systems, both of which, if not balanced with positive feedback when individuals are performing well, can be counter-productive and end up demotivating individuals. In general terms process theories have been criticised for assuming that rational choices and decision-making determine individual behaviour. In addition the choices that individuals make are not always of their choosing but may be mediated by specific values, environmental and interactional or other factors. Any serious and comprehensive examination of motivation in the workplace would not be complete without some reference to the much later important social cognitive theory of Albert Bandura (1977). Bandura, who initially started out as a behaviourist, developed a model which attempted to incorporate cognition, environment and behaviour. For Bandura, the environment is affected by individual behaviour, (contingencies) as well as by individual thoughts (expectancies) regarding the environment, as well as individual confidence, (efficacy) that individuals can perform in a given environment. From this perspective self-efficacy is a critical factor in predicting, understanding and influencing motivation. Individual or group efficacy can be increased using three key techniques ‘enactive mastery, modelling and persuasion by significant other’. Enactive mastery involves presenting or sequencing tasks in a manner understood by the individual/team which ensures that they can be achieved. Modelling is essentially finding one or more people with whom the individual/team can identify, who have mastered the desired task or are in the process of doing so. Individuals can obtain a great deal of confidence if they observe others similar to themselves performing effectively. A third way to increase efficacy is based on the notion that individuals respond in accordance with the expectations of significant others. ‘If they believe in my ability to achieve this task, I must be capable of completing this’. Banduras work on social learning has had an enduring influence on individual and group motivation not just in the work place but in many areas of modern life. New Motivational Perspectives Within the work setting over the past twenty years, there has been a shift in organisational structures towards more team and group based work. Recent studies indicate that employee motivation, job satisfaction and organisational commitment have all significantly increased within this framework. (Cordery et al 1991, Crown and Rosse 1995). Employee motivation and performance has also been enhanced by the introduction and extension of mentoring and coaching strategies. Research indicates that when mentors liked and respected mentees they were more motivated and committed. (Orpen 1997). Interestingly, it was also found that poor performance by mentees resulted from wider situational and environmental factors not within the remit of the mentor or mentee. Other non-financial motivators seen as significant in improving employee performance have most recently been presented by Woodruffe (2006:29): “advancement, autonomy, civilised treatment, employer commitment, environment, exposure to senior people, praise is awarded when praise is due, support is available, challenge, trust, reliable organisation and assignments”. In the twenty first century and beyond various trends in this field have emerged which have emphasised motivating, recognising and rewarding collectives(i.e., groups, teams, task forces, communities of practice in addition to individuals within them. Current systems focus on enhancing group-level attributes such as unit –level performance, collective efficacy, collaboration and working across organisational boundaries. All members of a business or organisation are increasingly expected to take some responsibility for facilitating and maintaining high motivation. Other frameworks in this area which are developing include Psychological Contracts, (Rousseau 1995, Herriot et al 1997,Sparrow 1996) Subconscious Goals, (Gollwitzer 1999, Bargh and Ferguson 2000,), Psychotropic Drugs,(Chatterjee 2004), Neuromotivation, and Spirituality,(Gall et al 2005). Many public and private organisations have introduced a combination of financial and non-financial schemes to improve employee motivation and commitment, which in turn is seen as facilitating increased productivity. This has included vice-chancellors awards in some United Kingdom universities, whereby staff, nominate other staff employed by the institution, involving not, most significantly, and exclusivelyacademic staff. The awards include money and formal recognition of individual performance and contribution to the institution. McDonalds Hamburgers is well recognised for its semi-military badge/star system, in which staff, are expected to achieve, having gained competence in different areas of the business and more recently the introduction of employee of the month/year plaques. Other employers have widened the remit and shifted from monetary incentives to more complex and sophisticated systems of facilitating and improving employee motivation and performance. Conclusion It has not been possible in this short review to provide additional information regarding the critical role of management and leadership in facilitating and developing motivation within the work context. Motivation in the work environment has to be linked to strategic aims and objectives, organisational frameworks and business outcomes. In most modern businesses human resource managers or general managers with a human resource remit will be expected to have a clear awareness and understanding of motivational issues and develop strategies to enhance performance and business success. It should be clear from this review and analysis that motivation and satisfaction within the work context are complex and sophisticated phenomenon which should not be reduced to basic and simple explanations. I have tried to provide some definitions of key concepts and broader explanations of the wide variety of frameworks. It should be clear that motivation in this analysis is not determined purely by financial factors. In relation to ESTATE AGENCIES, I have demonstrated that financial factors are secondary considerations and are not 100% significant, but individual and interpersonal factors are some factors to put into consideration.