History_Essay

WWII – Started because of Hitler’s Germany attempting to take over all Europe. Japan was fighting against Australia and Britain Australian Prisoner’s Of War (POWs) Treatment - cramped quarters with little food, starvation - disease and illness with no medical supplies - no respect, no weakness tolerated, worked to death - living primitively, killed and cremated - worked in rain like slaves Why Japanese culture and customs were that it was better to die (by suicide if necessary) than surrender to the enemy. This meant they had no respect or space for the prisoners Where Japan, Burma, Manchuria, Formosa, Indonesia, Sandakan, Changi After The POWs missed each other greatly after returning, because not only had they lived so closely together for so long and formed such strong ties, but they also felt no-one at home could understand what they had been through Sandakan Death March North Borneo in 1942 rations and medical supplies were cut, 2400 sent to work creating an airstrip, 6 men survived. 2nd March POWs hiked 165miles across Borneo – 500men, 200 survived. Were beaten with sticks and shot if couldn’t keep up, had to watch their friends die. Owen Campbell – escaped with four others, one committing suicide, three others caught and killed, eventually he was found by villagers, survived Geneva Convention 1929 Agreement laying down the rules of war including not bombing hospital ships and the treatment of POWs, which the Japanese did not follow Paradise Road Women and children were evacuated from Singapore, onto a ship which was bombed, and ended up in Sumatra and taken to a POW camp. Formed a community with singing, art and teaching. Terrible punishments such as burning alive Darwin Attacked 19th Feb 1942, aimed to destroy ships to leave New Guinea and Aust. open for invasion. 250ppl killed and hundreds injured, hospital ship and town severely damaged Sydney Boom net placed around harbour, barbed wire on beaches and practice drills. 3 midget submarines entered by following a ferry on 31st May 1942 Home Front – the mobilisation or people and resources of a country at war by civilians at home Conscription – compulsory enrolment and training in the nations armed forces, introduced in Aust in WWII Censorship – the gov controls what the public can see, read or hear (on the war) Women in War The traditional role of women to stay at home and care for the family, with women jobs such as nursing was changed. Originally they drove ambulances and made clothes, but soon industry needed women, and new ‘men’ jobs were available. By 1944, 800,000 women were employed in industry, receiving on average ⅔ pay, ¾ in war essential work and ½ in non war essential. Afterward many lost their jobs and were encouraged to return to traditional work W.A.A.A.F – Women’s Auxilary Australian Air Force -engineers, mechanics, servicing aeroplanes and making bombs Women’s Land Army – food production, harvesting and working on farms WRANs – Women’s Royal Aust Navel Service AWAs – Aust Women’s Army AANs – Australian Army Nursing Service Hiroshima The world war ended on 8th May 1945 with Germany’s surrender and the capturing of Berlin. However, Japan did not back down, and America realised their ‘island hopping’ and further attacks would be highly life-costly. The first to harness nuclear power, on 6th August 1945 US dropped an atomic bomb on Hiroshima, killing 70 000ppl, and a second on 9th August killing a further 40 000. Japan finally surrendered on the 15th August, with Ben Chifley announcing it to Australia The Cold War After the end on WWII, the two allies USA and USSR became increasingly competitive and hostile towards each other. Because there was never any direct conflict between the two superpowers, the time is known as the Cold War Communism Ideas and beliefs written by Karl Marx, stating that the class struggle between rich and poor (capitalism) would continue until the working class rose up, winning and creating a classless society. Everyone would be equal in position and wealth, contributing to their abilities and receiving according to their needs Capitalism A system in which the production, distribution and exchange in a country are privately owned and operated U.S.S.R Communist state with one political party with total control over the country, owning all factories. All goods and services are distributed equally except for top members of parliament who were rich and powerful. Media heavily censored, Gov controlled trade unions, little freedom of expression, press or religion. Moscow U.S.A Republic and democracy, citizens vote for a political party and have free choice of leader. Economy based on capitalism, minimal Gov interference with businesses privately owned. Wealth is somewhat shared through welfare payments but there is a great gap between rich and poor. Foreign policy dedicated to maintaining democracies and fighting communism. Washington DC End of WWII USA and Russia met at Elbar River, after VE day. In Feb 1945 Stalin (USSR), Churchill (UK), and Roosevelt (USA) met at the Yalta Conference. Germany was divided up into four and Berlin divided into east and west. The Western allies – France, US and UK decided on a single Gov and united the east side, the USSR was opposed to this Iron Curtain Term first suggested by Winston Churchill in 1946, describing the imaginary line dividing Europe into East and West – countries supporting communism and USSR, and west with democracies. Going from the Baltic Sea through Germany, dividing Austria from Czechoslovakia and Hungary, to the Adriatic Sea Buffer Zone Describes a barrier of friendly (communist) nation in east Europe that Russia desired to protect it from future invasion By 1948 Albania, Bulgaria, Romania, Poland, Hungary, Yugoslavia and Czechoslovakia all had communist governments. Cold War tactics Each side aimed to achieve military superiority and improve its power and influence. It attempted to form firm alliance agreements by giving economic and military assistance to neutral countries. Countries issued warnings, criticisms and demands, while publishing its successes in political, social and cultural areas, fighting on the sporting field, to get to space (space race) and in intelligence networks 1946 Unrest broke out in Iran, Turkey and Greece. USA sent 400millions dollars Truman Doctrine – 1947 Announcement promising aid to any country facing communist pressure, opposing the spread of communism throughout the world with an aim of containing it Marshall Plan The US Secretary of State promised long term economic aid to any European country, including those of the Eastern side. This was partially to aid the recovery of Europe’s trade market, which the US greatly relied on Berlin blockade & Airlift Stalin wanted to keep Germany as weak as possible, blockaded Berlin; from June 1948 to May 1949 the only way to get supplies into West Berlin was by air. Ended in 1949 with the two states of East and West Berlin being formed NATO and Warsaw Two agreements – North Atlantic Treaty Organisation formed by the western powers in 1949. Warsaw Pact – eastern nations in 1955 1949 – China becomes communist, USA was afraid of a threat from asia Korea June 1950 communist Korea invaded South Korea crossing the 38th parallel. The US saw this as a communist push and took firm action, resulting in the United Nations sending fifteen nations to assist South Korea. By September the UN force had driven back the army past the 38th parallel and it became clear they intended to abolish North Korea altogether. China intervend and the division was once again the 38th parallel. At this point an outbreak of war could break out between the US and USSR, however with the sacking of General D. MacArthur by Truman in 1951, an armistice was signed in July 1953. The was both costly and achieved nothing Soviet Union 1953 onwards Stalin’s death caused a worker’s uprising with workers demonstrations and strikes, and the new leader Khrushchev challenging Stalin’s leadership. Between 1949 and 1961, two million people left East Berlin for West, with half being young people. 1956 Hungary became a democracy, but kept loyalty to USSR. The Berlin Wall built 1961 – thirty mile barrier constructed in one night, sealing off people and communications from East and West. Vietnam With communist support a communist Gov was established in 1954. French forces were defeated, and Vietnam divided into communist north and democratic south. US sent large amounts of aid to South Vietnam Cuban Missile Crisis Cuba had traditionally been under great US influence, lying 145miles off the coast, and its economy relying on sugar exports to America. In 1959 Fidel Castro overthrew the Gov and nationalised the country, instigating communism. The US supported a disastrous attempt at an overthrown in April 1961, landing in the Bay of Pigs and being crushed by Castro’s forces July 1962 Soviet weapons began arriving in Cuba, with photographs from U2 aircraft revealing SAM sites in October. Intelligence confirmed Soviet nuclear warheads and rockets were heading towards Cuba. Almost all of the USA was now in range of deadly explosives, with IRBMs having a target range of 2500miles J.F Kennedy was president of America and his options were – ignore the build up, launch a full-scale invasion, enforce a navel blockade, or bomb the missile sites In October 22 Kennedy announced his decision, and the quarantine began on the 24th. Navel ships encircled the island, turning back any Russian ships containing military units. With communications slow between the two superpowers, and Russian ships having the power to fire without consent, it became an increasing danger than nuclear was could break out at any time. Khrushchev sent Kennedy a letter promising to dismantle all ‘offensive’ weaponry and military bases, if America guaranteed never to invade Cuba and remove the blockade. Later a second letter was received, attempting to strike a bargain – the removal of soviet weapons for US weapons from Turkey. In response, Kennedy accepted the first letter and ignored the second. Results Kennedy emerged with a new respect and reputation, and Khrushchev with a crisis that led to his downfall. A hotline was established 1963. Signing of a Nuclear Test Ban Treaty 1963 by US, UK and Soviet Union, prohibiting testing in the atmosphere. Reaching the brink of nuclear war and coming t terms with the consequences it would have had on world peace gave the two leaders a new understanding of their power that would lead to the gradual breakdown of the hostilities of the Cold War Cold War’s effect on Australia Ideology – the theories, ideas and beliefs of a particular person, organisation or political system Australian people feared the spread of communism, In 1950 Robert Menzies as leader of the Liberal party proposed the banning of the CPA, not allowing communists entry into government or semi-government employment, controversial ‘burden of proof’ – guilty before proven innocent. This policy was argued to be unconstitutional as Aust could only ban political parties when the country was at war. A referendum was held, and strong cases were presented for both sides Yes -communist activity has become a grave menace to Aust industry, peace, production, national security and defence, loyalty to justice and the USA, fear of USSR and China Domino Effect – that if one country falls to communism it will cause the next to fall, and it will become an irreversible trend No Unnecessary, unconstitutional and totalitarian, against freedom of speech, religion, association and practice, imagined fear born out of propaganda, ethically incorrect Result 2 317 927 For, 2 370 009 Against Proving opinions were divided Petrov Affair April 1954 Russian Vladimar Petrov who had run the USSR spy operations in Aust, defected. The KGB (USSR secret police) decided to send Evdokia (his wife) back to Russia. She was taken onto a plane, but when it stopped to refuel at Darwin, she also defected, and they lived happily under assumed names to escape revenge. It also resulted in the shutting down of the Soviet Embassy in Aust, and the Aust Embassy in the USSR. Vietnam Originally was owned by the French, who lost it at the battle of Dien Bien Phu. It was divided up by the 17th parallel into communist and non-communist regions. Communist North Vietnam led by Ho Ching Ye invaded South Vietnam, US (and Aust) supported South Vietnam. L. B Johnson visited Australia in 1966, and the Gov introduced conscription without a referendum through the National Service Act passed Nov 1964. With the invention of television, cameras captured to was and the suffering was revealed to the public. Moratorium May 8th 1970 – thousands of Australians stoped work to protest, 100 000 in Melbourne alone. More people became aware of the situation and formed their own opinions Agent Orange – a toxic chemical sprayed on the Vietnam forests to defoliate them. After the war it caused great illness and disease in returned soldiers Australia became involved in the war because - Their alliance agreements, ANZUS 1951 and SEATO 1954 - Belief in the principal of forward defence - Fear of communism - Concerns over Indonesia, fear of their president Sukarno’s links with communism - Support of US Fighting Conventional Warfare – used by the American soldiers, large armies fighting each other on fronts, the use of large scale technology and equipment, tanks, bombs etc. Guerrilla Warfare – how the communists and the Vietcong fought. They travelled lught in small army groups, using ambush, sabotage and hit and run tactics, taking help from the local population, blending in with their surroundings and making bombs out of cans etc. Conscientious objectors Young men over 20 called up by conscription but refusing to enrol – Bill White refused, was arrested and sentenced to 21 days in prison. Supporters of the war included – Older Australians, conservative elements in society and those whose supported the conservative political parties, RSL, many in the Catholic Church, the media early on Opposition – people who saw it as none of Australia’s business, those who opposed conscription, people were affected by the sights of war, we were losing, younger generation that challenged accepted ideas and had increased political involvement Anti-war movement 1. early and peaceful protests 2. short lived violent phase of protesting 3. nationwide moratorium movement calling for withdrawal and end of conscription Aboriginal Australians Upon first coming to Australia, the Europeans considered the land ‘terra nullius’, e.g. belonging to no-one. They saw the Aborigines as animals, savages and primitive. The Aboriginal flag was designed in 1971 by Harold Thomas Protection/Paternalism In the later 19th century, White Australians had a Paternalist attitude to Aborigines – that they were child-like and depended on Europeans from survival, were inferior to whites. The Protection Acts gave extensive control over Aboriginal people, allowing their separation onto reserves or missions. The Aboriginal Protection Board was established in 1909, allowing the removal of Aboriginal children, and in 1915, without parental consent. The Board was shut down in 1969 and it is estimated that 10,000 children were removed in Australia alone. Stolen Generation The policy of taking mix-race or half-caste children away from their mothers so they could be better integrated into society caused what is known as the Stolen Generation. Full-blooded Aborigines were often taken to camps to lose their nomadic lifestyle. Conditions on reserves varied – many Aborigines married into white society, others lived in communities or worked in low paid labour By the 1920’s the Aboriginal Protection Board began closing many of its reserves, taking the traditional land of the Aboriginal people for the Soldier Settler Scheme. Legislation heavily regulated Aboriginal life with controls on marriage, work and movement. Day of Mourning The Day of Mourning was begun on Australia Day 1938, commemorating the 150th anniversary of the landing of the First Fleet as 150 years of dispossession and inequality – William Cooper, Jack Pattern and William Ferguson. They put forward a Ten Points Plan Assimilation In 1951, Paul Hasluck successfully promoted the idea of assimilation – that Aborigines would learn to live like white people. The policy was aimed at improving living standards, however in reality the Aborigines were forced to give away their traditional values and culture, without gaining any new acceptance Integration was a Gov policy introduced in 1965 to replace assimilation. It aimed at letting Aboriginal culture co-exist with Europeans culture. From 1962 Aboriginals were allowed to vote in federal elections but were not counted in the census. Only states could make laws concerning Aboriginal people, and these laws varied. Many foreign countries criticised Australian’s treatment of Aboriginals Referendum The 1967 referendum made Aboriginals part of the population and allowed the federal Gov to make laws concerning Aboriginals. This was a definite but small step in creating equality. The Govs power was not used and rights were still not equal. However, it forced the Gov to take responsibility for the Aborigine people. It took a huge amount of effort to make the Referendum possible. The FCAATSI had to get 100,000 signatures on a petition to show public support. The media assisted by reporting cases of racism, segregation and inequality. Strike at Wave Hill cattle station 1966. Freedom Rides. Referendum passed with 90.2% of the Yes vote. Freedom Rides Took place in 1965. Group of Sydney University students, led by Charles Perkins, drove a bus around the state on NSW, stopping and protesting in towns with segregation and obvious Aboriginal inequality (inspire by Martin Luther King Jr). Towns visited include - Wellington and Gulargambone, surveys of Aboriginal and non Aboriginal people of their point of view and living conditions - Walgett, picketing the local RSL club for denying returned Aboriginal servicemen - Moree, taking Aboriginal children to a prohibited pool - Lismore, Bowraville and Kempsey Charles Perkins See Essay The Self-Determination policy implemented by Whitlam in the 1970s gave Aborigines the rights to choose their own development and destiny. They now had a say in how they lived, their basic human rights, and choice of lifestyle and culture The Warburton Mission Film gave people a stark and horrifying view into life for Aborigines, forced to leave their land, fleeing from bomb testing, rift with disease, dehydration and starvation Land Rights Aborigines have been trying to reclaim their land since the 1960s. They consider themselves as Belonging to the land, rather than the land belonging to them, and this is due to the land and sea being central to their beliefs. Their own ‘country’ provided everything they needed physically and spiritually, and each area had its own creation story, with strict hunting laws, rituals and ceremonies. On arriving in Australia in 1770, he took no notice of the Aboriginals life on the land, and declared it terra nullius – land belonging to no-one, and claimed the entire eastern Australia as Crown Land. There were no negotiations. Types of land title - Freehold: the land is the owners to do with what they wish, including sell - Leasehold: land is rented for a specific period of time for the holder’s exclusive use - Pastoral leases: issued in the 1830’s and 40’s, land rented for a specific time and purpose, holders could only graze etc., had to recognise rights of Aborigines in terms of access. - From the 1800’s increased amounts of Crown Land was also set aside for Aboriginal reserves, and though they were allowed to live there, were not given the title to reserve lands Timeline to Land Rights 1972 – Aboriginal Tent Embassy set up outside Parliament House 1973 – Aboriginal Lands Trust set up, giving freehold title to Aborigines still living on reserve 1976 – Aboriginal Land Rights (NT) passed, granting land rights on vacant land, could not be bought or sold, owned communally 1982 – Demonstrations at Brisbane Commonwealth Games 1983 – Uluru national park handed over to traditional owners, freehold title granted to many Aborigines 1992 – Mabo decision, concept of terra nullius rejected 1993 – Native Title Act passed, giving Aboriginals a system of claiming land rights 1996 – QLD Wik Decision ruling that Aboriginal people could still make a claim on pastoral leases, 40% of Australia is owned by pastoral lease 1997 – NSW, Native Title Amendment Act made it harder for claims to be made, reduced amount of claimable land, weakened rights of native title holders. On pastoral leases, pastoralists and native title holders and co-exist, however, in case of conflict; the interests of pastoralists come first, seen as a step backwards (Wik legislation) Mabo Decision Eddie Mabo and others wanted legal recognition of their ownership rights over particular lands on Mer (Murray Island). Challenging the right of the Queensland Gov to deny them the use of parts of their land. Originally failed because Mabo couldn’t prove he was Benny Mabo’s adopted son. In 1992, three months after Eddie Mabo’s death in January and after 10 years of fighting, the High Court ruled in their favour, that - native title to land existed on land before 1788 and may still exist where land had not been sold of given away - for native title to exist, there would have to be proof of continuous and traditional use of the land - native title ceased to exist where land was sold or granted by Gov Native Title – refers to the recognition in Aust law of the rights of Aboriginal people to their traditional lands and waters, recognising the connection they have with the land Aboriginal deaths in custody 1987 – Outcry by Aust public (driven by the media) about the number of indigenous Australians dying in police custody Royal Commission into Aboriginal Deaths in Custody – sought to understand how the social, cultural and legal issues had a bearing into their deaths 1990 Found that – Aboriginal people had a unique history of being ordered, controlled and monitored by the State, noted the effects of separation from family and early institutionalisation. Recommended that the disadvantage which indigenous Australians suffered must be overcome. Over 300 recommendations – including over representation of Abs in prison – need for self-determination and access to education – Imprisonment should be the last option, reducing arrest rates, (however this had no impact on rates) – Decriminalising public drunkenness, reducing arrests – Services by provided to help those with an alcohol problem – People often feel isolated, alienated and need assistance – Actual higher incidence of alcoholism in white Australians, but tended to drink at home Arrest rates highest for Aboriginals in custody (not for public drunkenness) – WA (4909), SA (3464), and NT (1128) Malcolm Smith – Aboriginal who died in custody, some rejected it to be a suicide, Died from self-inflicted injuries after driving a paintbrush handle into his left eye. Cycle of Disadvantage - Aboriginals die 15 to 20 years earlier - Health problems: smoking, drugs, alcohol abuse, poor nutrition and lack of exercise - Indigenous babies were 4 times more likely to die in childhood - Blindness is bad health problem and is 15-20 times more prevalent in Aborigines than White Australians Petrol Sniffing Is a major issue among aboriginal children – leads to hallucinations, brain damage, heart and respiratory failure and death. Why' - BECAUSE they have no sense of belonging/ no purpose in life (depression); boredom; petrol is readily available; lack of education; peer pressure; physiologically the only way to escape discrimination Education is a major way of ending the cycle of disadvantage – it increases a persons opportunities in terms of employment; self sufficiency, political and social influence Increases self esteem and don’t feel helpless, Gain social skills, learn about dangers of petrol sniffing etc Migrants Allegiance – sense of duty and loyalty to a person or country Assimilation – policy of trying to make people to give up old customs and accept a new way of living Baby-boomers – people born in the years between 1946 and 1960 Culture – beliefs, customs and language belonging to a particular group of people Discrimination – differentiating between people based on their age, gender, race or beliefs etc. Integration – the blending of a racial, cultural or religious minority group with the rest of the community Refugees – people who are forced to leave their own home and country for protection Aliens – Non-British Europeans, Italians, Germans WWI – prejudice against aliens Hostility to Asians Resentment originally formed against the Chinese during the 1850’s gold rushes. The Chinese would often work harder and made more money than most Australians, often searching ‘empty’ pieces of land and finding gold. They also sent most of it back home to China, not assisting the Aust. economy in any way. Between 1855 and 1886 the colonies began introducing laws to restrict Chinese arrivals. Hostility to Chinese people grew during the 1890s, as during a time of depression it was felt they were taking jobs from Australians. There was also a growing sense of Australian nationalism. With the term ‘white Australia’ used for the first time White Australia Policy 1901 – Immigration Restriction Act Involved a dictation test for those applying to enter Australia that could be set in any European language, if a particular person was not desired, they could be given the test in a highly remote language, and if they passed, be forced to re-take it in another. Even if they were accepted, most were denied citizen rights such as voting. This was through the Commonwealth Franchise Act. The Naturalisation Act prevented ‘any aboriginal native of Asia, Africa or the Islands of the Pacific, exempting New Zealand’ from being naturalised (getting citizen rights/privileges) Three main reasons - belief the British race was superior, wanting to keep out inferior races, keep Australia pure - fear of Asian invasion - people from Asian countries could take jobs as would work for lower wages Was slowly eroded as the Gov relaxed restrictions, in 1958 the dictation test was removed. At the beginning of the 1970’s Australia was - far more outward looking - had to reassess its relationship with Japan and Asian countries for new markets - had been 2 million migrants - rapid growth of the economy 1972 – White Australia Policy removed, however Asian and African Immigration still somewhat restricted Land Settlement Scheme Was a way to attract British people to Australia, involved assisted passage/land grants, used propaganda advertisements. Failed because people were given a false image of the Australian lifestyle and climate. Were not prepared for hot and cold weather and hard work, many returned home Children as migrants Were the most attractive migrants as were easy to control, didn’t question, didn’t take the jobs of Australians, assisted immediately in times of low birth rate, easy to assimilate. Dr Banados – children’s charity established 1912 offering welfare in the form of farm schools. Fairbridge settled 1700 handpicked boys, providing school tuition and practice farm experience, left at 17. In 1944 all faced closure but combined, began caring for Australian children and children of migrants. In 1976 were closed and sold off. Problems ( poor understanding of the children, not all were orphans, some poorly educated, forced into bad jobs, abuse, organisations have recently been formed to track down parents. Replaced with Big Brother program – with boys aged 15.5 to 17.5 leaving families in England under assisted passage to Aust until they come of age. Split into groups but not separated from each other, sponsors assume the role of parents. Able to make their own choices, given opportunities. During WWII 2540 people came to Australia from England, as political refugees on the Dunera. Either their country of origin was at war with the British, or they were POWs. Many had their families split up, and felt very isolated from the rest of the Aust community. Were sent to work in Hay, some were highly educated and set up a highly influential university. The conditions were so poor that a 100 year ban was placed on the files relating to their internment. Interned – put into camps, imprisoned Populate or Perish WWII - Drained Aust of people, immigrants and aliens fought for Aust - Australia could not defend such a large nation with such a small population - Severe shortage of skilled labour Low birth rate meant only way to populated quickly was by immigration Immigration Two main aims - Economic; bring in labourers required for Australia; people brought in under assisted passage agreements had to work for 2 years in an industry elected by the government - Humanitarian; large amount of refugees from WWII; Poland, Germany, Austria; had suffered greatly during the war Ex-servicemen were seen to be the best for meeting Aust’s needs, and so were offered assisted passage 1947 – 32,000 1948 – 70, 000 1949 – 150 000 Peaked in 1969/70 with 185 000 new arrivals Post-War Immigration Program After the war, new people via the Post-War Immigration Program. Aust took 180,000 second only to the US Came from Britain, Europe, Holland, Netherlands, came for a better life, opportunities for their children, freedom and human rights, often had no choice which country they went to. Were cross examined to prevent those guilty of war-crimes. People hiding illnesses resulted in boat loads of infected people, with many children dying on the journey. Were forced to work as labours or in a Gov elected industry for 2 years. Aus Good Neighbour Councils – established in towns to welcome new arrivals, however no assistance to learn English was provided. Bilingual programs and interpreter services were no provided. Reception and holding centres were set up, but often split up families causing resentment. Assimilation – post war immigration It was seen the best migrants were those who could easily blend in with white Australian society. It was expected that migrants would stop using their traditional language, leave their beliefs and customs and adopt Australian ones. Assimilation failed because it is very hard for people to just abandon their culture and language. Older migrants especially found it hard to learn English, and as people are proud of their culture, many are reluctant to change, and want to pass on their heritage to their children. As a result of this, many migrants grouped together in particular streets or towns. Italian Migrants After WWII thousands came under the assisted immigration scheme, ;little italy’ communities were established, Calabrian Italians settled mostly in Leichhardt, Glebe, Eastwood and Ryde, with Trevutti in Griffith. Worked as small businessmen or market gardeners, kept their culture through clubs, religion and festivals. Many had no work available, situation deteriorated until 1952 – Bonegilla Riots. Over food, living conditions and unemployment. Gradually Australians recognised Italians as hard workers, speeding up process of acceptance. Displaced Persons Scheme People who arrived after the war, many placed in camps. Similar to those interned during the war, had to work for 2 years in specified industry. Most performed manual labour, working in mines, termed ‘factory fodder’, coal, zinc, iron, copper mines; steel works; Snowy Mountains Scheme Snowy Mountains Scheme 1949-1972. Largest scale construction undertaken mostly by migrants, 25 years in construction. Takes melted snow and converts for irrigation and hydro electric power. Cost the Gov over $1 billion. Offered various opportunities, e.g. operating machinery, mining underground or starting up a business. Paid good wages but were isolated; English lessons, cultural diversity, and birthplace of multiculturalism. 121ppl killed, unknown no. injured. Nest Egg Scheme Allowing people from Britain out for only 10 pounds; had to provide their own accommodation and have savings of 500 pounds. Advertising showed happy, beautiful people with sunny beaches and exciting opportunities Criticisms in 1960s Promoted employment opportunities for migrants, in fact there was huge unemployment, took a long time to process applications. Made changes so than non-Europeans could migrate without sponsorship, people were assessed on individual merit rather than race Integration New policy replacing assimilation in 1968, many migrants were disadvantaged, and Gov. realised that special services needed to be provided to help migrants settle in. People were rebelling against cultural conformity and showing the ability to fit in without changing their original culture. More acceptance was shown to migrants, with welfare and support offered, foreign language television programs, teaching English, safety signs in migrant’s languages. Multiculturalism began emerging during the 1960s and 70s, however attitudes were often slow to change Multiculturalism In place as of 1973 by Whitlam Gov. Evidence is a variety of Asian food and influence, range of cultures featuring range of people, Special Broadcasting Service SBS, shows teaching English. Positive – diversifying of food, culture, religion, ideas and perspectives; greater understanding and better global relationships; trade links, larger gene pool Negative – segregation between ethnic groups and non-integration; possibility of reverse racism; feelings of being overrun and losing Australian identity Four principals that underpin Multiculturalism – responsibility of all, respect for each person, fairness for each person, and benefits for all Contribution of migrants Fulfilled Govs aim of increasing the population and expanding the economy Migrant labour was used in massive construction schemes, working in jobs Australians didn’t want. Resulted in increased demand for - housing, food, furniture, transport, and infrastructure - resulted in increased employment needs Opened up new trade routes, diversified the economy. Changed Aust socially and culturally, as migrants brought rich diversity of food, dress and customs, new religions and languages. Immigration at end of 20th century Non-discrimination immigration policy, acceptance determined by Gov. Divided into two areas ( Migration Program and Humanitarian Program Migration program – Skilled stream, Family stream Humanitarian program – people from refugee situation in urgent need of resettlement