Gender_Inequality

Gender is a form of inequality; assess the sociological arguments for and against the existence of such an inequality. This essay will focus on inequalities found between men and women which are known as gender inequalities. Therefore it will explain the causes of inequality, in particular those found in areas of the family, education and the media. There are many different perspectives and theories as to why women and men are unequal. Feminists believe that males are dominant and that women are less important due to patriarchy, liberal feminists believe it is due to gender role socialisation. In sociology gender refers to the socially defined differences between men’s masculinity and women’s femininity. Inequality means unequal rewards or opportunities for different individuals within a group or groups within society. Liberal feminists such as Ann Oakley suggest that gender role socialisation is responsible for the inequality due to the fact that girls and boys are socialised in different ways through primary and secondary socialisation. It is suggested that there are three agents of socialisation, the family, the school and the media, all of which contribute to the influence. ‘There is evidence that children are gendered by their family from birth, this is primary socialisation. Studies comparing adult reactions to a baby dressed in blue and introduced as a boy and the same baby dressed in pink and introduced as a girl show very different reactions. The boy was described as big, strong and lively and the girl was described as sweet, beautiful, quiet and good.’ (AS-Level Sociology: 2008) Ann Oakley’s (1974) research led her to identify four ways in which primary socialisation constructs gender: • Manipulation ~ parents often encourage normal behaviour and interests for the child’s sex and discourage what is seen as abnormal. This manipulates the child’s self image and the child becomes interested in the normal behaviour. For example, girls are often dressed up in pretty dresses so that pretty becomes important to them. Girls are often told off for being unladylike by shouting, playing loudly and getting mucky. • Canalisation ~ parents often channel their children’s interest in a particular direction. For example, boys may be given construction or aggressive toys such as Lego or toy guns whilst girls may be given beauty, mothering or housewife toys such as jewellery and make-up, dolls and prams or a toy kitchen. • Verbal Appellation ~ parents may use language and names to identify what is appropriate. For instance, little girls are told you’re an angel or what a beautiful little girl whilst boys are told you’re a cheeky monkey or what a big strong boy. • Different Activities ~ parents may involve children in different aspects of the household. For example, girls help to wash the dishes whilst boys help to wash the car. This teaches children what men’s work is and what women’s work is. Oakley said that by the age of five most children have a good idea of what appropriate behaviour for their gender is. (AS-Level Sociology: 2008) ‘Ann Oakley also argues that there is still an expectation for women to take on the housewife/mother role. Because of this, it is more difficult for women to pursue careers as men do. Oakley also claims that employers expect women to play the role of housewife rather than pursue a career. This patriarchal ideology is justified by men through claims that women are more suited to caring roles because of their maternal instinct.’ (Weineck: 2010) However, some liberal feminists such as Sue Sharpe have recently been more optimistic. She has said that not all women take on caring roles because of their socialisation. They may react against their socialisation or pursue a career. In the 1970’s when she researched teenage girls attitudes she found that they valued marriage and motherhood but when this research was repeated again in the 1990’s she found that teenage girls stressed their career ambitions. (AS-Level Sociology: 2008) Research carried out by Jonathan Gershuny (1992) also suggests that gender inequalities are changing. He shows that childcare and housework are shared between men and women much more than in the past. The so called new man does the dishes and changes the baby’s nappies. Statistics show an increase in the number of househusbands, men who stay at home, cook, clean and care while their female partners go out to work. (AS-Level Sociology: 2008) Liberal feminists have been criticised because they tend to assume that all women accept their gender identities in a passive way and that they do not take race or class into consideration. Marxist sociologist’s explanations for gender inequality within the family are based on the theories about power in society. They interpret the fact that men and women have different roles as evidence of the power of capitalism to control the family life. They say women and men have unequal roles because capitalism works best that way. Even with more women working outside the home in equal hours to men, the capital class needs to promote women as naturally caring and nurturing to ensure workers are kept fit, healthy and happy. (AS-Level Sociology: 2008) However, Marxists are criticised as they place too much emphasis on the role of economic structure in shaping ideas and beliefs, emphasising on class and not enough on individuals. In addition to the primary socialisation sociologists say that there is evidence that secondary socialisation has a big effect on children. School is a secondary agent of socialisation where girls and boys are treated differently in education. Sociologists say that education passes on gender stereotyped assumptions about how males and females should behave and that there is still gender differences in subject choice, girls tend to go for arts and humanities whilst boys tend to go for science and technology. (AS-Level Sociology: 2008) Subject choice may still be influenced by gender socialisation with the ideas of femininity and masculinity creating different expectations and stereotypes of what to study. ‘Children often see biology as the science that is OK for girls to do and girls who do physics as super hardcore science chicks‘. (AS-Level Sociology: 2008) Kelly (1987) found that science is seen as a masculine subject with boys dominating the science classroom. However, reading is often seen as uncool or girly and boys who avoid books like the plague will not develop important communication skills. (AS-Level Sociology: 2008) Parental and teacher expectations may encourage girls to follow what they see as the traditional normal choice for their gender as there is pressure to conform to a social norm. (AS-Level Sociology: 2008) Sociologists used to talk about female underachievement in education but since the 1980’s their have been worries about boys falling behind. Here are six factors about gender and different educational achievements: • Girls get better results at all levels in National Curriculum tests. • Girls get better results in most subjects at GCSE. • Girls are more likely to pass their A-levels. • Women are more likely to go to university. • Men seem to have the most success at the highest levels of university. • Girls tend to go for communication based subjects such as English and sociology and boys tend to go for technical ones like maths and physics. (AS-Level Sociology: 2008) There are factors inside school that explain why females now do better. Mitsos and Browne (1998) say teaching has been feminised and that classroom teachers are more likely to be female, especially in primary schools. This gives girls a positive role model. The feminisation of teaching suggests that boys don’t have as many role models in school. (AS-Level Sociology: 2008) ‘Swann and Graddol (1993) think that high female achievement is a result of the quality of interaction they have with their teachers. Most of the time teachers spend with girls is used to help them with their work but most teacher time is spent with boys is focused on behaviour management‘. (AS-Level Sociology: 2008) ‘Jackson (1998) says that schools label boys negatively. Boys are associated with poor behaviour, which gives the school a bad name, and with low achievement, which lowers the schools league table position. This negative label becomes a self fulfilling prophecy‘. Boys are more likely to be excluded from school. (AS-Level Sociology: 2008) However, Archer (2006) says that females still face problems at school arguing that the current underachievement by boys in education masks the conditioning problems girls still face. ‘She claims that high achieving Asian and Chinese girls get negatively labelled by teachers as robots who are incapable of independent thought. She also argues that high achieving black working class girls get negatively labelled by teachers as loud and aggressive.’ Archer concludes that the ongoing achievement of girls is fragile and problematic. (AS-Level Sociology: 2008) Marxists says that education legitimises inequality through ideology preparing children for the world of work by giving them the skills and values that they will need. Education justifies inequality and passes on ruling class ideology that supports capitalism. (AS-Level Sociology: 2008) ‘The neo Marxist Althusser sees education as part of the ideological state apparatus. In other words, it is a toll of capitalism which is used to pass on the belief that society is fair. Althusser thinks education produces a docile and obedient workforce‘. (AS-Level Sociology: 2008) However, Marxists are criticised as they assume that people are passive victims as it exaggerates how much working class students are socialised into obedience. Willis (1977) showed how students actually resist authority. He says that education doesn’t turn out to be an obedient workforce as children form an antisocial subculture and cope with school and then adult work by mucking about. (AS-Level Sociology: 2008) Most people are aware of the inequality in education and don’t believe that society is fair. Another factor which is said to affect children’s views of gender is the media. The media has an enormous effect on the transmission of ideologies about gender, for example, ‘females in Hollywood are often presented as weak, in need of rescuing by a strong male hero’. (AS-Level Sociology: 2008) Angela McRobbie (1978) argued that female magazines reinforce conventional notions of femininity, emphasising the importance of getting and keeping a man, being beautiful and so on. (AS-Level Sociology: 2008) Wolf (1990) suggests that advertising tends to present an unobtainable ideal image for women, reinforcing the notion that women should look good for men. (AS-Level Sociology: 2008) Joan Smith, in her 1997 book Different for Girls, also argued that culture creates and perpetuates gender differences. (AS-Level Sociology: 2008) Marxists suggest that the role for women is maintained ideologically through the media as it presents interests of capitalism as normal and natural. Patriarchy is reinforced by the media as women are shown women’s lives which justifies and supports female oppression and exploitation. Change in representation of men can be seen as extending consumerism to men. (Class Handout) However, masculinity in the media has become more feminised. ‘Rutherford (1996) points out that images of men in the media are now being used in traditionally female ways, i.e. to be ogled at. Male stripper groups such as the Chippendales are a good example. He also looks at the marketing of men’s cosmetics and toiletries, as there are far more of these now than in the past. Images used to advertise them are often of half naked male models. (AS-Level Sociology: 2008) Wilkinson (1997) suggested that increasingly males and female values are coming together, with both men and women creating their own identities. (AS-Level Sociology: 2008) This essay concludes that there is definitely a gender inequality throughout society. Marxists believe that gender inequality exists due the fact that men and women have different roles due to capitalism in order to control family life. The most convincing perspective appears to be that of the liberal feminists, who focus on gender role socialisation. Their explanation is that people socialise boys and girls differently from an early age without even realising it, for example, from birth girls are dressed in pink whilst boys are dressed in blue. Ann Oakley (1974) described four ways in which primary socialisation constructs gender from an early age; these are through manipulation, canalisation, verbal appellation and through boys and girls being exposed to different activities. This teaches children what men’s work is and what women’s work is. Primary socialisation explains the construction of gender inequalities and is the first influence on children’s ideas about gender. However, as the child grows older other factors influence gender inequalities through secondary socialisation such as education and the media.