Fghj

Biology 1-H Final Exam Review Chapter 1 Homeostasis- state in which physical and chemical aspects o internal environment are being maintained within ranges suitable for the cell activities Steps of Scientific Method: 1. Observation 2. Research the Subject 3. Hypothesis(If, Then) 4. Test Hypothesis w/ experiment 5. Record Data 6. Draw a Conclusion Important parts of Controlled Experiment-Dependent & Independent Variable Variable because it could affect the whole experiment Chapter 2 Basic Chemistry Atomic Structure Elements- One of the 103 known chemical substances that cannot be divided into simpler substances by chemical means. A substance whose atoms all have the same atomic number. Ion- Atoms that possess a positive or negative charge due to the gain or loss of electrons. Ionic Bond- a chemical bond in which one atom loses an electron to form a positive ion and the other atom gains an electron to form a negative ion. Hydrogen Bond- a weak type of chemical bond formed when the slightly positive hydrogen atom of a polar covalent bond is attracted to the slightly negative atom of a polar covalent bond in another molecule; a common bond in organisms that has an attractive force between a hydrogen atom and another molecule. Covalent Bond- a bond between two or more atoms that is provided by electrons that travel between the atoms nuclei, holding them together but keeping them a stable distance apart. sharing electrons between two or more atoms Chapter 3 Organic Compounds Characteristics • Carbon atom(s) (basis for life) • Functional Group(s) • Covalently bonded Proteins Proteins are large molecules, and have monomers of amino acids. There are 20 different known kinds of amino acids, and they contain a carboxyl group, an amino group, and an "R" group. The "R" group is what makes each amino acid different. When Amino acids combine, they form a special bond called a peptide bond, and become a polypeptide, or a protein. Carbohydrates Carbohydrates have monomers called monosaccharides. Some of these monosaccharides include glucose (C6H12O6), fructose (C6H12O6), and deoxyribose (C5H10O4). When two monosaccharides undergo dehydration synthesis, water is produced, as two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom are lost form the two monosaccharides' carboxyl group. There are 2 hydrogen atoms to every one oxygen atom. Nucleic Acid Nucleic acids are very important in biochemistry. The most common nucleic acids are deoxyribonucleic acid and ribonucleic acid. Their monomers are called nucleotides. The most common nucleotides are called adenine, cytosine, guanine, thymine, and uracil. Adenine binds with thymine and uracil, thymine only binds with adenine, and cytosine and guanine can only bind with each other. Lipid Lipids are usually made up of a molecule of glycerol and other molecules. In triglycerides, or the main lipid, there is one molecule of glycerol, and three fatty acids. Fatty acids are considered the monomer in that case, and could be saturated or unsaturated. Carbon Basis of Life Carbon forms the backbone of biology for all life on Earth. Complex molecules are made up of carbon bonded with other elements, especially oxygen, hydrogen and nitrogen. It is these elements that living organisms need, among others, and carbon is able to bond with all of these because of its four valence electrons. Since no life has been observed that is not carbon-based, it is sometimes assumed in astrobiology that life elsewhere in the universe will also be carbon-based. Organic vs. Inorganic Compound • Inorganic compounds make salts • Organic Compounds have carbon atoms • Organic Compounds contains carbon-hydrogen bonding • Organic compounds are produced by living things. Inorganic compounds are produced by non-living natural processes or by human intervention in the laboratory. • Inorganic compounds contain metal atoms. Organic compounds don't. Functional Groups In organic chemistry, functional groups are specific groups of atoms within molecules that are responsible for the characteristic chemical reactions of those molecules. The same functional group will undergo the same or similar chemical reaction(s) regardless of the size of the molecule it is a part. However, its relative reactivity can be modified by nearby functional groups. Condensation- a chemical reaction between two molecules which links them together and expels a molecule of water. For example: the joining of two amino acids by a peptide bond during the formation of a polypeptide. [pic] Hydrolysis - a chemical reaction wherein a water molecule (HOH) and a reactant exchange functional groups resulting in two end products, one containing the hydrogen cation (H) and the other the hydroxyl an ion (OH). An example is the chemical reaction of water with the ions of salt resulting in the formation of an acid and a base, one or both of which is only slightly dissociated Chapter 4 Cells are the basic unit of life Prokaryotic reproduce by binary fusion. Eukaryotic cells reproduce by cell division.. Formulation of the Cell Theory In 1838, Theodor Schwann and Matthias Schleiden were enjoying after-dinner coffee and talking about their studies on cells. It has been suggested that when Schwann heard Schleiden describe plant cells with nuclei, he was struck by the similarity of these plant cells to cells he had observed in animal tissues. The two scientists went immediately to Schwann's lab to look at his slides. Schwann published his book on animal and plant cells (Schwann 1839) the next year, a treatise devoid of acknowledgments of anyone else's contribution, including that of Schleiden (1838). He summarized his observations into three conclusions about cells:    1)  The cell is the unit of structure, physiology, and organization in living things.    2)  The cell retains a dual existence as a distinct entity and a building block in the         construction of organisms.    3)  Cells form by free-cell formation, similar to the formation of crystals (spontaneous generation). Cell Organelles and Function • Mitochondrion An important cell organelle involved in respiration • Cytoplasm A fluid surrounding the contents of a cell and forms a vacuole • Golgi Apparatus The processing area for the creation of a glycoprotein • Endoplasmic Reticulum An important organelle heavily involved in protein synthesis. • Vesicles Packages of substances that are to be used in the cell or secreted by it. • Nucleus The "brain" of a cell containing genetic information that determines every natural process within an organism. • Cell Membrane Also known as a plasma membrane, this outer layer of a cell assists in the movement of molecules in and out the cell plays both a structural and protective role • Lysosomes Membranous sacs that contain digestive enzymes • Cell Wall A structure that characteristically is found in plants and prokaryotes and not animals that plays a structural and protective role. Fluid- Mosaic Model Chapter 5 Diffusion refers to the process by which molecules intermingle as a result of their kinetic energy of random motion. Osmosis is of great importance in biological processes where the solvent is water. The transport of water and other molecules across biological membranes is essential to many processes in living organisms. The energy which drives the process is usually discussed in terms of osmotic pressure. hypotonic: a solution which contains more solute than solvent (example: a lot of salt(solute) dissolved in water(solvent)) hypertonic: a solution which contains more solvent than solute (example: purified water--there's almost no solute dissolved in the solvent(water)) isotonic: a solution in which the solute and solvent are equally distributed--a cell normally wants to remain in an isotonic solution, where the concentration of the liquid inside of it equals the concentration of the liquid outside of it Parts of a Solution- Solute & Solvent(Mostly Water) Plasmolysis- Shrinkage or contraction of the protoplasm away from the wall of a living plant or bacterial cell, caused by loss of water through osmosis Turgor- The normal fullness or tension produced by the fluid content of blood vessels, capillaries, and plant or animal cells. ATP - stands for Adenosine Triphosphate, empirical formula: C10H16N5O13P3; an organic compound that is composed of adenosine (an adenine ring and a ribose sugar) and three phosphate groups, hence, the name .A nucleotide that contains a large amount of chemical energy stored in its high-energy phosphate bonds. It releases energy when it is broken down (hydrolyzed) into ADP (or Adenosine Diphosphate). The energy is used for many metabolic processes. Hence, ATP is considered as the universal energy currency for metabolism Enzyme- a catalytic protein and helps breakdown organic compounds Chapter 6&7 The equation of photosynthesis is 6CO2 + 6H2O + Energy ® C6H12O6 + 6O2. The equation of respiration is C6H12O6 + 6O2 --> 6CO2 + 6H2O + energy. Chlorophyll is the primary pigment in photosynthesis Location of Photosynthesis: Stomata of Chloroplast Location of Respiration: Throughout the cytoplasm Photosynthesis occurs in two stages. These stages are called the light reactions and the dark reactions. The light reactions take place in the presence of light. The dark reactions do not require direct light, however dark reactions in most plants occur during the day. Light reactions occur mostly in the thylakoid stacks of the grana. Here, sunlight is converted to chemical energy in the form of ATP (free energy containing molecule) and NADPH (high energy electron carrying molecule). Chlorophyll absorbs light energy and starts a chain of steps that result in the production of ATP, NADPH, and oxygen (through the splitting of water). Oxygen is released through the stomata. Both ATP and NADPH are used in the dark reactions to produce sugar. Dark reactions occur in the stroma. Carbon dioxide is converted to sugar using ATP and NADPH. This process is known as carbon fixation or the Calvin cycle. Carbon dioxide is combined with a 5-carbon sugar creating a 6-carbon sugar. The 6-carbon sugar is eventually broken-down into two molecules, glucose and fructose. These two molecules make sucrose or sugar. Vascular Plants Xylem- The supporting and water-conducting tissue of vascular plants, woody tissue. Phloem- The food-conducting tissue of vascular plants Visible light is the spectrum of light of wavelengths that is used for the process of photosynthesis Waste products of oxygen is given back to other organisms, such as animals, that need oxygen to live an survive Lactic Acid causes arthritis and soreness throughout the body Yeast needs to go through respiration so, that it expands and able to eaten. Yeast is one of the most used ingredients in the baking industry Fermentation = Sugar (glucose or fructose) → alcohol (ethanol) + carbon dioxide + energy (ATP) Chapter 8&9 The purpose among the type of organism is different. In single-celled organisms it is simply reproduction, basically an organism cloning itself. In multi-cellular it is for proliferation of cells, both to grow and to replace old or dead cells. The graph shows the length o the cycle including mitosis an cytokinesis. Interphase is longest phase in the cell cycle. The shortest phase in telophase in mitosis. Spermatogenesis and Oogenesis is the process in which men get sperm and women get eggs. Cytokinesis is the process whereby the cytoplasm of a single cell is divided to spawn two daughter cells. The process of change that take place during the division of a cell nucleus at mitosis is the process of karyokinesis. 2n=two sets of chromosomes and relate to body cells, each chromosome has a mate just like it Humans have 23 pairs chromosomes. Sperm and Eggs are collectively sex cells Spermatogenesis is the process to get sperm cells. Spermatogonium is process of getting 4 haploid sperm cells. Sperm is from the these two process. Cellular differentiation is the process by which a less specialized cell becomes a more specialized cell type Chapter 10 Gregor Mendel is monk that discovered that each organism has genes Sex determination is caused by the male. The sex is determined by the chromosomal makeup o the offspring. Genotype- the genetic makeup of an organism that’s not physically seen. Phenotype-the visible characteristics that a organism shows F1 is the first breed of offspring and F2 is the offspring’s offspring. Polygenic inheritance is a pattern responsible for many features that seem simple on the surface. Many traits such as height, shape, weight, color, and metabolic rate are governed by the cumulative effects of many genes. Punnet Squares- Left is one gene and the right is two gene square. Pedigree Genetic and Chromosomal Errors- The precise arrangement (sequence) of A, C, G, and T bases[pic][pic] on a DNA[pic][pic] strand is the recipe that encodes the exact sequence of a protein[pic][pic]. If the recipes have extra bases or misspelled bases or if some are deleted, the cell[pic][pic] can make a wrong protein or too much or too little of the right one. These mistakes often result in disease. In some cases, a single misplaced base is sufficient to cause a disease, such as sickle cell anemia. Errors in our genes[pic], our genetic material, are responsible for estimated 3,000-4,000 hereditary diseases, including Huntington disease, cystic fibrosis, and Duchenne muscular dystrophy. What's more, altered genes are now known to play a part in cancer, heart disease, diabetes and many other common diseases. Genetic flaws increase a person's risk of developing these more common and complex disorders. The diseases themselves stem from interactions of such genetic predispositions and environmental factors, including diet and lifestyle. Some experts estimate that half of all people will develop a disease that has a genetic component. Understanding the genetic code did not directly lead researchers to disease genes. Their ability to decipher the genetic messages encapsulated in DNA was stymied by the overwhelming number of such messages carried in the DNA of each cell. A human cell (except sex cells--sperm and egg cells--and some blood cells that have no nuclei) contains about 6 feet of DNA molecules[pic][pic] tightly coiled and packed into 46 chromosomes--rod-like structures in the cell nucleus that are formed from DNA covered with proteins. This DNA is made up of 3 billion base pairs. If printed out, those base pairs would fill more than 1,000 Manhattan telephone directories. When researchers tried to break up DNA molecules into more manageable pieces, however, they ended up with a chaos of random fragments whose order in the original DNA was lost. Chapter 12-13 The diagram shows the double- helix structure of DNA. The backbone is made of sugar phosphate. The backbone is attached by base pairs. The purine bases are adenine and guanine. The pyrimidine bases are thymine and cytosine. Cytosine and guanine are always paired. Thymine and adenine are always paired. DNA’s purpose is to the genetic information needed to carry out the life processes. RNA and DNA differ in three main ways. First, unlike DNA which is double-stranded, RNA is a single-stranded molecule in most of its biological roles and has a much shorter chain of nucleotides. Second, while DNA contains deoxyribose, RNA contains ribose, (there is no hydroxyl group attached to the pentose ring in the 2' position in DNA). These hydroxyl groups make RNA less stable than DNA because it is more prone to hydrolysis. Third, the complementary nucleotide to adenine is not thymine, as it is in DNA, but rather uracil, which is an unmethylated form of thymine. Like DNA, most biologically active RNAs including tRNA, rRNA, snRNAs and other, non-coding, RNAs are extensively base paired to form double stranded helices. Structural analyses of these RNAs have revealed that they are highly structured. Unlike DNA, this structure is not long double-stranded helices but rather collections of short helices packed together into structures akin to proteins. In this fashion, RNAs can achieve chemical catalysis, like enzymes.] For instance, determination of the structure of the ribosome—an enzyme that catalyzes peptide bond formation—revealed that its active site is composed entirely of RNA. Hydrogen bonds hold the bases together. Codon- A sequence of three adjacent nucleotides constituting the genetic code that determines the insertion of a specific amino acid in a polypeptide chain during protein synthesis or the signal to stop protein synthesis. The functional form of single stranded RNA molecules frequently requires a specific tertiary structure. The scaffold for this structure is provided by secondary structural elements which are hydrogen bonds within the molecule. This leads to several recognizable "domains" of secondary structure like hairpin loops, bulges and internal loops. There has been a significant amount of bioinformatics research directed at the RNA structure prediction problem. RNA Types: Messenger RNA (mRNA) is synthesized from a gene segment of DNA which ultimately contains the information on the primary sequence of amino acids in a protein to be synthesized. The genetic code as translated is for m-RNA not DNA. The messenger RNA carries the code into the cytoplasm where protein synthesis occurs In the cytoplasm, ribsomal RNA (rRNA) and protein combine to form a nucleoprotein called a ribosome. The ribosome serves as the site and carries the enzymes necessary for protein synthesis. In the graphic on the left, the ribosome is shown as made from two sub units, 50S and 30 S. There are about equal parts rRNA and protein. The far left graphic shows the complete ribosome with three tRNA attached. The ribosome attaches itself to m-RNA and provides the stabilizing structure to hold all substances in position as the protein is synthesized. Several ribosomes may be attached to a single RNA at any time. In upper right corner is the 30S sub unit with mRNA and tRNA attached Transfer RNA (tRNA) contains about 75 nucleotides, three of which are called anticodons, and one amino acid. The tRNA reads the code and carries the amino acid to be incorporated into the developing protein. DNA is responsible for the genetic code because the genes are within the bases that is hydrogen bonded to the backbone of DNA Chapter 16 Darwin's Theory of Evolution; 1. Variation: There is Variation in Every Population. 2. Competition: Organisms Compete for limited resources. 3. Offspring: Organisms produce more Offspring than can survive. 4. Genetics: Organisms pass Genetic traits on to their offspring. 5. Natural Selection: Those organisms with the Most Beneficial Traits are more likely to Survive and Reproduce. Natural selection is the process by which favorable heritable traits become more common in successive generations of a population of reproducing organisms, and unfavorable heritable traits become less common. Natural selection acts on the phenotype, or the observable characteristics of an organism, such that individuals with favorable phenotypes are more likely to survive and reproduce than those with less favorable phenotypes. The phenotype's genetic basis, genotype associated with the favorable phenotype, will increase in frequency over the following generations. Over time, this process may result in adaptations that specialize organisms for particular ecological niches and may eventually result in the emergence of new species. In other words, natural selection is the mechanism by which evolution may take place in a population of a specific organism. The darkening of several species of moths during the recent period of industrialization in many countries by the spread of gene controlling elevated melanin synthesis is the industrial melanism. As you get further down in the classification of organism, the organism gets closer and there aren’t as many as there would be in kingdom that is in a family. A population is a group of organisms that are all the same species Archaebacteria are the oldest living organisms on earth. They are prokaryotes and unicellular. Archaebacteria are found in very harsh conditions (such as at the bottom of the sea or in volcanic vents). This is thought to be because the early Earth’s atmosphere was filled with poisonous gases and was very hot – nothing could survive, except the archaebacteria. These slowly gave way to modern organisms when the Earth’s conditions settled down and oxygen was introduced to the atmosphere. The eubacteria are more complex, and common, than the archaebacteria. It is the eubacteria that most people are talking about when they say bacteria, because they live in more neutral conditions. They can be found everywhere around us – in our bodies, our food, etc. There are four phyla of bacteria, some of which are divided into subgroups. Protista large, single eukaryotic cell (nucleus is enclosed by a membrane); some form chains or colonies absorb, ingest, and/or photosynthesize food protozoans and algae of various types Fungi multicellular filamentous form with specialized eukaryotic cells absorb food funguses, molds, mushrooms, yeasts, mildews, and smuts Plantae multicellular form with specialized eukaryotic cells; do not have their own means of locomotion photosynthesize food mosses, ferns, woody and non-woody flowering plants Animalia multicellular form with specialized eukaryotic cells; have their own means of locomotion ingest food sponges, worms, insects, fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals Viruses aren’t in any kingdom because they don’t follow out all the life processes to be an organism. Dichotomous key is a tool that allows the user to determine the identity of items in the natural world, such as trees, wildflowers, mammals, reptiles, rocks, and fish. Keys consist of a series of choices that lead the user to the correct name of a given item. "Dichotomous" means "divided into two parts". Therefore, dichotomous keys always give two choices in each step. Chapter 18 & 19 Redi’s Experiment of Spontaneous Generation He is most well-known for his experiment in 1668 which is regarded as one of the first steps in refuting "spontaneous generation" - a theory also known as Aristotelian abiogenesis. At the time, prevailing wisdom was that maggots formed naturally from rotting meat. In the experiment, Redi took eight jars, which he divided in two groups of four: in the first jar of each group, he put an unknown object; in the second, a dead fish; in the last, raw chunk of veal. Redi took the first group of four jars, and covered the tops with fine gauze so that only air could get into it. He left the other group of jars open. After several days, he saw maggots appear on the objects in the open jars, on which flies had been able to land, but not in the gauze-covered jars. Miller and Urey’s Experiment The Miller-Urey experiment (or Urey-Miller experiment) was an experiment that simulated hypothetical conditions present on the early Earth and tested for the occurrence of chemical evolution. Pasteur’s Experiment One of the first to disprove spontaneous generation. A French scientist who proved that micro organisms was carried by dust not air. (French 1864) Spontaneous generation is the hypothesis that some vital force contained in or given to organic matter can create living organisms from inanimate objects. Fossilization and Stratification in Rock Layers The deeper in the ground you go the older the fossil get. So the highest level shows recently died. Homologous Structure A body part with the same basic structure and embryonic origin as that of another organism, though not necessarily sharing the same function. Thus the bones of vertebrate forelimbs are homologous even though the limbs can function in widely different ways (e.g., for swimming, flying, running, or grasping). Darwinists interpret such similarities as due to inheritance from a common ancestor. Chapter 20 & 21 All viruses have a capsid or head region that contains its genetic material. The capsid is made of proteins and glycoproteins. Capsid contruction varies greatly among viruses, with most being specialized for a particular virus's host organism. Some viruses, mostly of the type infecting animals, have a membranous envelope surrounding their capsid. This allows viruses to penetrate host cells through membrane fusion. The virus's genetical material rests inside the capsid; that material can be either DNA, RNA, or even in some cases a limited number of enzymes. The type of genetic material a virus contains is used in classification, and is discussed in Virus Classification. In addition to the head region, some viruses, mostly those that infect bacteria, have a tail region. The tail is an often elaborate protein structure. It aids in binding to the surface of the host cell and in the introduction of virus genetic material to the host cell. Arrangement of Bacteria Protista Chapter 24 Frog Diagram Gas Exchange in Frogs Breathing supplies the body with oxygen, and disposes of carbon dioxide. After a frog breathes the fresh oxygen is distributed throughout the body by the blood. Gas exchanged by the lungs is used to make the vocal cords vibrate. They are located in the larynx, and are necessary for the sound generated by a frog. The frog nerve epineurium is composed of loose connective tissue of a rather indistinct nature. First of all, these new-fangled reptiles could mate on dry land! Male reptiles came equipped with an ingenious appendage enabling them to insert sperm inside the female's body. Moreover, inside the female, an eggshell was formed around the developing embryo, and this enabled the egg to be laid on dry land -- something impossible for primitive amphibian eggs. Dry-land nests can be better defended than an amphibian's typically gelatinous egg-mass simply extruded into water. With regard to the second problem, that of retaining water in their bodies, the lizard shown at the top of this page clearly shows the reptilian "invention" that helped solve that problem: These new reptiles were covered with fairly waterproof scales, so that water stayed inside their bodies much better than it did in the amphibians'. In the picture, each of those little roundish objects on the  lizard's body surface is a scale. The third problem that of keeping the body warm when air temperature grew cold, was not overcome by the reptiles. Or, maybe it was in some of them... All of today's reptiles are thought to be "cold blooded," but some paleontologists believe that at least a few species of dinosaurs, which were reptiles, were able to keep their body temperatures up when cold weather arrived -- that they were "warm blooded." The debate of whether some dinosaurs were warm blooded is still going on. Chapter 25-27 Vascular tissue is a complex tissue found in vascular plants, meaning that it is composed of more than one cell type. The primary components of vascular tissue are the xylem and phloem. These two tissues transport fluid and nutrients internally. There are also two meristems associated with vascular tissue: the vascular cambium and the cork cambium. All the vascular tissues within a particular plant together constitute the vascular tissue system of that plant. The cells in differentiated vascular tissue are typically long and slender. Since the xylem and phloem function in the conduction of water, minerals, and nutrients throughout the plant, it is not surprising that their form should be similar to pipes. The individual cells of phloem are connected end-to-end, just as the sections of a pipe might be. As the plant grows, new vascular tissue differentiates in the growing tips of the plant. The new tissue is aligned with existing vascular tissue, maintaining its connection throughout the plant. The vascular tissue in plants is arranged in long, discrete strands called vascular bundles. These bundles include both xylem and phloem, as well as supporting and protective cells. In stems and roots, the xylem typically lies closer to the interior of the stem with phloem towards the exterior of the stem. In the stems of some Asteriidae dicots, there may be phloem located inwardly from the xylem as well. The leaf cells are the site for photosynthesis Fruit Origin Fruit grew in many tropical areas. Fruits need lots of water and sun. Tropism is a response to a stimuli. Chapter 28-38 The work of breathing is done by the lungs, and the diaphragm. If you exercise they get stronger. Blood vessels surround the air sacs in your lungs. The air sacs pick up the air you breathe, and form carbon dioxide. So by exercising they work better in use of breathing. Exercise helps increase amounts of air your lungs hold. More air means more room to exhale carbon dioxide. Your heart benefits the most from regular exercise. Exercise can keep your blood pressure below, and it can reduce the amount of fat buildup in your blood that can help prevent heart attacks, and strokes. It helps specific body systems because it helps your body build beautiful bones and joints. It also makes your body look healthy and natural. Body systems are important to your body, and fitness and exercise help your body systems function. Exercise really makes a difference in your body, and moving. It is important to your body and it is really important too! Exercise helps many body systems like the heart, lungs, diaphragm, etc. Mechanical Digestion The large pieces of food that are ingested have to be broken into smaller particles that can be acted upon by various enzymes. This is mechanical digestion, which begins in the mouth with chewing or mastication and continues with churning and mixing actions in the stomach. High Fat Diet Contributing to Cholesterol Lipids are fats that are found throughout the body. Cholesterol, a type of lipid, is found in foods from animal sources. This means that eggs, meats, and whole-fat dairy products (including milk, cheese, and ice cream) are loaded with cholesterol - and vegetables, fruits, and grains contain none. The liver produces about 1,000 milligrams of cholesterol a day, and you probably consume about 150 to 250 milligrams in the foods you eat. Because cholesterol can't travel alone through the bloodstream, it has to combine with certain proteins. These proteins act like trucks, picking up the cholesterol and transporting it to different parts of the body. When this happens, the cholesterol and protein form a lipoprotein together. The two most important types of lipoproteins are high-density lipoproteins (or HDL) and low-density lipoproteins (or LDL). You've probably heard people call LDL cholesterol "bad cholesterol" and HDL cholesterol "good cholesterol" because of their very different effects on the body. Most cholesterol is LDL cholesterol, and this is the kind that's most likely to clog the blood vessels, keeping blood from flowing through the body the way it should. About one third to one fourth of the total amount of cholesterol is HDL cholesterol. HDL cholesterol carries cholesterol back to the liver, where it can be processed and sent out of the body. Frontal Lobe- associated with reasoning, planning, parts of speech, movement, emotions, and problem solving Parietal Lobe- associated with movement, orientation, recognition, perception of stimuli Occipital Lobe- associated with visual processing Temporal Lobe- associated with perception and recognition of auditory stimuli, memory, and speech The Frontal Lobe is the largest lobe The Occipital Lobe is the smallest lobe Chapter 26 and 40-43 The term biotic means living or having lived. Examples of biotic factors would include a frog, a leaf, a dead tree, or a piece of wood. The term abiotic means non-living, or never having lived. Examples of abiotic factors would include gold, rock, bicycle, brick, and cement. Cycles Transpiration is the process by which moisture is carried through plants from roots to small pores on the underside of leaves, where it changes to vapor and is released to the atmosphere. Transpiration is essentially evaporation of water from plant leaves. Nitrogen fixation is the process by which nitrogen is taken from its stable gas form (N2) in air and changed into other nitrogen compounds (such as ammonia, nitrate and nitrogen dioxide) useful for other chemical processes. It is an important part of the nitrogen cycle. • Naturally by many different prokaryotes. Micro-organisms that fix nitrogen are called diazotrophs. Some plants and animals (for example, termites), use diazotrophs to live. • Lightning. NO from nitrogen gas and oxygen gas due to light and lightning, are important for the chemistry of the air, but too small to be important for life. • Through the Haber - Bosch process. Nitrogen gas is combined with hydrogen gas into ammonia for fertilizer and explosives. • Burning. Decomposers and scavengers break down dead plants and animals. They also break down the waste (poop) of other organisms. Decomposers are very important for any ecosystem. If they weren't in the ecosystem, the plants would not get essential nutrients, and dead matter and waste would pile up. Legumes are beans that help the process N2 fixation throughout the world. Pollution is the introduction of contaminants into an environment, of whatever predetermined or agreed upon proportions or frame of reference; these contaminants cause instability, disorder, harm or discomfort to the physical systems or living organisms therein. Pollution can take the form of chemical substances, or energy, such as noise, heat, or light energy. Pollutants, the elements of pollution, can be foreign substances or energies, or naturally occurring; when naturally occurring, they are considered contaminants when they exceed natural levels. Pollution is often classed as point source or nonpoint source pollution. Sometimes the term pollution is extended to include any substance when it occurs at such unnaturally high concentration within a system that it endangers the stability of that system. For example, water is innocuous and essential for life, and yet at very high concentration, it could be considered a pollutant: if a person were to drink an excessive quantity of water, the physical system could be so overburdened that breakdown and even death could result. Another example is the potential of excessive noise to induce imbalance in a person's mental state, resulting in malfunction and psychosis; this has been used as a weapon in warfare. Acid rain is rain or any other form of precipitation that is unusually acidic. It has harmful effects on the environment and on structures. Acid rain is mostly caused by emissions due to human activity of sulfur and nitrogen compounds which react in the atmosphere to produce acids. In recent years, many governments have introduced laws to reduce these emissions. Biodegradable vs. Non-Biodegradable Biodegradable breaks down someway .Non-biodegradable can’t be broken down. The government tries to make everything biodegradable. Ozone depletion describes two distinct, but related observations: a slow, steady decline of about 4 percent per decade in the total amount of ozone in Earth's stratosphere since the late 1970s; and a much larger, but seasonal, decrease in stratospheric ozone over Earth's polar regions during the same period. The latter phenomenon is commonly referred to as the ozone hole. In addition to this well-known stratospheric ozone depletion, there are also tropospheric ozone depletion events, which occur near the surface in polar regions during spring Pollution from the millions of vehicles throughout NJ cause global warming so, the summers are hotter then ever and winters are warmer. Pollution along the beaches doesn’t attract many tourist to the beautiful beaches.