Expressionism

EXPRESSIONISM By Lucy Martin The term ‘Expressionism’ refers to the cultural movement originating in Germany at the start of the 20th Century. The term originally related to art, where Impressionist painters attempted to express their inner vision instead of objective external reality. These paintings were deeply subjective and often eccentric. Expressionism peaked in 1920’s Berlin, with playwrights including Carl Sternheim (From The Heroic Life of The Bourgeois 1911-22), Ernst Toller (Masses Man 1921), and Georg Kaiser (Largely considered to be the most successful expressionist dramatist, wrote From Morn To Midnight 1912, one of the most frequently performed works of German Expressionist Theatre). Outside of Germany, Expressionist playwrights included the Americans Eugene O’Neill (The Hairy Ape 1922) and Elmer Rice (The Adding Machine). Earlier artists including August Strindberg (A Dream Play 1902) and Frank Wedekind (Spring Awakening 1891) were not part of the movement known as Expressionism, however they did write in a similar style, and are often referred to as Expressionist playwrights. Expressionism is a branch of Non-Realistic Theatre, which developed in reaction to the style of Realism. Non-Realistic Theatre included styles such as Theatre of the Absurd, Epic Theatre, Symbolism and Theatre of Cruelty. Expressionist artists were influenced by all of these styles, and also by art forms outside of theatre, for example the poet August Stramm, who experimented with language, using monosyllabic utterance as a measure of feeling and emotion. Like Stramm, Expressionist playwrights avoided descriptive analysis of emotion or situation. Set and costumes from Spring Awakening, Contemporary Theatre of Athens, 2008. The social and political contexts of these playwrights also heavily influenced their work. The Expressionist period spanned World War One, and this changed the face of the movement. Pre-War expressionism was mainly concerned with protests against materialism and loss of spirituality. Early Expressionist playwrights objected to the introduction of machines and industrial technology to the world, and were apprehensive of the impact these changes would have on humans, regarding them as a threat to the human spirit. They believed that society was becoming too caught up in a life filled with material possessions, and regarded the war as necessary in order to purify society. German Expressionists also protested against the society of a patriarchal family system, an arrangement which tended to smother individuality, especially that of the youth. This theme is explored in Wedekind’s Spring Awakening. Initially, many playwrights may have seen the war as necessary; however the massive loss of life during the war (including the death of many Expressionist dramatists) changed the face of the movement. Those practitioners who were not killed were transformed. Expressionism took on a more overtly political complexion, changing from private protest into complex political argument. Expressionism was also prevalent in a time where a newer class of society was being established. Before the Industrial Revolution, western humanity generally fell into one of two classes – the upper or the lower. The introduction of machines meant the development of a new class, the middle. Expressionist dramas played on the idea of the ‘Everyman’ character, someone who was neither rich nor poor. Because this character’s life was not watched by the rest of society, a bigger focus could be placed on the subconscious and the workings of an individual’s mind. The practitioners of Expressionism sought to convey a heightened interpretation of the world through the use of many theatrical conventions and techniques. The features of expressionism included – A transformation of reality into a dreamlike and fantasy world. This can often represent the character’s subconscious, and a transformation of reality allows for greater artistic license in relation to plot and characters. Use of fantasy and symbolism, with moments of realism. The marrying of realism and non-realism in Expressionist plays was also common, and playwrights did this to raise questions about the nature of existence, causing the audience to consider what they see as real or true. Use of generalised character names. Instead of specific names, use of general nouns such as ‘Mother’, ‘Father’, ‘Worker’ ensured a lack of definition with characters, making them representative of all mothers, fathers, workers, etc. Use of many varied characters and locations. These could be used to convey pockets of the protagonist’s subconscious, and were often nameless. Sub-characters usually lacked depth. Communication of a political or social message. These often explored technology, or society’s growing greed and materialism, such as in O’Neill’s The Hairy Ape (1922), about finding a sense of belonging in a world controlled by the rich. The Missouri Workshop's 1932 production of The Hairy Ape, set design by Lawrence Adams. Conventions also extended to the sets and costumes of expressionist productions. Because Expressionism aims not to depict the appearance of a scene, but its meaning, the Expressionist stage neither simulated reality nor suggested unreality. Sets were very abstract, and could be minimal or incredibly detailed. In Expressionist drama, setting became a dramatic force, where walls of houses leant in at sharp angles, windows lit up like spying eyes, and trees took on the shapes of skeletons. Like the characters, the sets in these productions reflected details of the protagonist’s psyche. Symbolic props were also used. These props were often much larger than reality, used to offset the minimal set used. Directors would also use slides on backdrops in order to easily convey the many locations. These slides could also be used to create mood and atmosphere. Lighting was also used effectively, in order to create shadows, illuminate other parts of the set, and aid in the creation of mood and atmosphere. Like sets, costumes in Expressionism could range from realistic to completely abstract. The conventions of Expressionism also applied to the costumes characters wore on stage. Sometimes, characters would wear generic costumes to correspond to their generalised character names, for example The Worker. The protagonist’s costume would often be more elaborate, with the designer drawing on symbolism to communicate a message within the costume.