Essays

1. To what extent is the term “Renaissance” a valid concept for a distinct period in early modern European history' (1985) (Mc 13, P 2) "The Renaissance was a true rebirth in art, politics, and thought". That is how the Renaissance is usually how the renaissance is described, as the rebirth of modern thinking. Was the Renaissance truly a rebirth in literature, art, and politics, or was it a continuation of the Medieval Times' There are not only two different thoughts to how the Renaissance came about and what it meant to during the times between the 14th and 17th century, many different thoughts and ideas about the Renaissance are still argued today. In Birdsall S. Viault's book, Modern European History it states," there is the idea that, sometime around 1350, a sudden rebirth of literature, art and scholarship began in Italy". In that line from the book it is commenting on how people think that a drastic change in the way Europeans lived happened over night. That statement is also making a slight fun of the people who think of the Renaissance was a rebirth. The way the Renaissance may not be considered the rebirth is the thought that it was just the continuation of the growing medieval European civilization. During the Medieval Times, Romanesque and Gothic architecture began to form, the first universities were established and scholastic philosophy began to develop. It is sometimes considered that the "rebirth" was more of a continuation of what was already happening for hundreds of years. In the, A History of Western Society by Buckler, Hill, and McKay it states that, "The fourteenth century witnessed the beginnings of remarkable changes in many aspects of Italian society...these cultural changes haven collectively labeled the "Renaissance." It is agreeing with the opinion that the Renaissance was a rebirth in economic and political ways, but also just the matter of the times becoming more modern. The Renaissance went through many individuals that contributed in some area, for example, art, literature, and economically. In most cases, it is usually agreed that the Renaissance was a rebirth from the Middle Ages, it wasn't an event that happened over night yet it quickly became the new way of life. The Renaissance was a "rebirth" that developed the perspective in paintings, the literary movement produced Latin, poetry, and history and economically the business of trade began. It is considered the "rebirth" of its era because many new developments occurred and the rise of intellectual people making a change to it's society. For example, Michelangelo Buonarroti was an Italian Renaissance painter, sculptor and architect, his most famous works of art was David and Pieta, which today are still looked at as one of the most greatest pieces of art ever made. He was the artist who's artistic style resulted in the next major movement in Western art after the High Renaissance, Mannerism. The people of the Renaissance brought the modern life style to Europe and it not only changed it for that time being, but for all the time after also, including today. Therefore, the Renaissance was a rebirth of art, literature, and politics and it was not just a continuation of the Middle Ages. The Middle Ages did not improve the way people lived and did not change there perspectives on modern life, but the Renaissance did. It was the era were art was being modernized and literature was changing. The Renaissance had a huge impact on Europe and could be defined also as the time of change. 2. Explain the ways in which Italian Renaissance humanism transformed ideas about the individual’s role in society. (1994) (Mc 13, P 2) Brainstorming: Humanism: Studying of past, recovering documents, statues, New Learning era. Emphasis on human beings: 1) Accomplishments 2) Achievements 3) Interests 4) Capabilities 5) Uniqueness Thesis: In the era of Italian Humanism, the people went from feeling helpless and as if their purpose in life was to serve the king and that state to feeling important and praised for their uniqueness, achievements, interests, and capabilities. 3. Discuss how Renaissance ideas are expressed in the Italian art of the period, referring to specific works and artists. (1998) (Mc 13, P 2) (Lab) Thesis: Through Italian arts and works Renaissance secularism, humanism and individualism were all each incorporated into Italian projects. Secularism: • Leonardo’s, The Last Supper- modernized, materialistic look • Brunelleschi, octagonal dome of a the cathedral in France- different from rest, first major architect Individualism: • Donatello’s David statue- was nude (different from other sculptures),was proportioned well (uncommon), first equestrian statue since roman times • Masaccio’s, The Holy Trinity- perspective/ dramatic effect, influenced other artists Humanism: • Botticelli’s, The Birth of Venus- classical Greek inspired • Raphael’s, The School of Athens- reflected classical antiquity 4. “In the fifteenth century, European Society was still centered on the Mediterranean region, but by the end of the seventeenth century, the focus of Europe had shifted north.” Identify and analyze the economic developments between 1450 and 1700 that helped bring about this shift. (1989) (Mc 13,14, P 2) Thesis: Between the years of 1450 and 1700, there were developments and new ideas leading to economic rise. Art, sailing structures and the Dutch East India Company influenced the rise of profit. • Ship building – allowed ships to sail year long, Increased diversity of goods brought • Art- new techniques invented, people and oligarchies sponsored artists, artists economic status rose • Dutch East India Company- received profit of all trade (18% annual), lasted for 200 years, became the richest private company until it became bankrupt 5. * “The Reformation was a rejection of the secular spirit of the Italian Renaissance.” Defend or dispute this statement using specific examples from sixteenth century Europe. (1986) (Mc 13, P2) Brainstorming: Reformation: Time that called for change in society, people’s mindset, the straying away from old ideas. Martin Luther/ John Calvin call for: 1) Stronger focus on faith 2) Belief in less wealthier people to be equal to the upper class 3) Rich to focus attention and money towards religion not art Results of reform: 1) More rich people strayed away from the “arts” 2) Poor people began to feel equality “vibe” Thesis: The Reformation process was definitely a rejection of the prior secular spirit, as seen with John Calvin and Martin Luther leading the way with their callings for a stronger focus on faith and religion as opposed to the arts and paintings. 6. “Luther was both a revolutionary and a conservative.” Evaluate this statement with respect to Luther’s responses to the political and social questions of his day. (1983) (Mc 14, P 2) 7. Assess the extent to which the Protestant Reformation promoted new expectations about social roles in the sixteenth century. Refer to at least two social groups in your response. (1996) (Mc 14, P 2) The Protestant Reformation criticized the clergy lifestyle of splendor. This added to certain privileges being taken away. However, the city government had already been determined to reduce their privileges by giving them public responsibilities. Also, the Reformation promoted equality in the sense that all men are born equal. This resulted in many peasant revolts. Evidence: page 461 on McKay 8. Compare and contrast the attitudes of Martin Luther and John Calvin toward political authority and social order. (1995) (Mc 14, P 2) Contrast Martin Luther (Political) John Calvin (Political) - Supported the princes (not peasant) - Appeal German princes to reform the church and moral - Princes used religious to extend their financial and political independence - Had a power impact on English politics and government - Won following over the Dutch Netherlands and made limited gain in Germany - Promoted the development of capitalism of Europe Martin Luther (social order) John Calvin (social order) - Salvation (way through faith) - God could grant the gift of salvation - Believer could do nothing - Opposed indulgences - Reformed the local church - Luther views: baptism and holy communion – true sacrament - Abolished the monasteries and ended the requirement for celibacy of clergy - Conservative ( social and economic issues) - Dispensation - spread Lutheranism and bible - priests, monks and nuns paid no taxes - reduced privileges and gave public responsibilities to clergy - everyone were attracted by Luther’s words - Protestants established school for girls - - - Predestination - The belief of God or fate has decided what will happen to us and no one can change it - Calvinist Puritanism: banned card playing, gambling, dancing, theatergoing, consumption of alcohol and swearing - Established strict theocracy - Calvinists known as Puritans - Purify the English church of its remaining of Catholic elements - Spread Calvinism - Preaching Compare Martin Luther and John Calvin Political Social order - Used to religious to expand terror and gain population - Helped to develop the political of a country - Believed in supremacy of the bible - Ended both monasticism and the clergy - Believed in holy communion and baptism – 2 sacraments - Established Christian society - Reformed church - Spread bible – increasing educated people Thesis statement: during the 16th and 17th centuries, the Lutheranism and Calvinism religion had begun and gained a lot of support of people around Europe quickly by the attitudes toward political authority and social order. Otherwise, both religions were hard for German princes to determine the right religion for his state, because both of them had the same thing and some differences about attitudes toward political authority and social order in which it directed to the beliefs, views, and the development of government or monarchy in a country. During the 16th and 17th centuries, the religion of Luther and Calvin had begun to gain a lot of attention and support of people around Europe quickly by the attitudes toward political authority and social order. They had some similar attitudes between political authority and social order such as believing in Christian doctrine and reforming churches. Otherwise, they also had some different attitudes toward the political authority and social order such as Lutheranism conservative and Calvinism predestination. 9. Describe and analyze the ways in which the Roman Catholics defended their faith against the Protestant Reformation. (1991) (Mc 14, P 2) Thesis: Protestantism was a more simplistic and watered down version of Catholicism, this caused the Roman Catholics to defend their religion and reinforced the views on obtaining salvation by the spreading and preserving its faith with the Jesuit missionaries, the strengthening of the Church in the Council of Trent and control over non-believers or “heretics” with the Roman Inquisition. Info: CATHOLIC -saved by faith and good works -religious authority lies in bible and teaching of the church -the church is identified with the clergy -monastic and religious leaders have superiority and are the highest form of Christian life -Transubstantiation- Eucharist (bread and wine) turns into the actual body of Christ -council of Trent (1545): reaffirm catholic teaching (seven sacraments, indulgences, purgatory), reject protestant -strengthen catholic churches (papal authority was superior) -the Jesuits: help spread and preserve Catholicism -missionaries to save the Catholic Church and educate youth -Anti-protestant crusade of King Philip II= strongly catholic -Roman inquisition- severe methods to stop beliefs against their own -index of prohibited books -torture, admitting hearsay, secret witnesses, rumors as evidence, PROTESTANT -saved by faith alone -religious authority lies in “sola scriptura” -church identified with the entire community of Christian believers -everyone is equal in the eyes of god, no one is superior -Consubstantiation- Christ is really present during communion 10. The pictures below and on the next page show the interiors of a Protestant church and a Roman Catholic church, as each appeared in the first half of the seventeenth century. Using these pictures as a starting point, explain how each of these interiors reflects the different theologies and religious practices of Protestantism and Catholicism at that time. (1992) (Mc 14, P 2) 11. What were the responses of the Catholic authorities in the Sixteenth Century to the challenges posed by the Lutheran Reformation' (1985) (Mc 14, P 2) Evidence: - Roman Inquisition - Jesuits - Council of Trent - Counter Reformation ( Catholic Reformation) Thesis statement: following the spark of Martin Luther and the fire of religious revolution in 1517. The Catholic church responded to the Lutheran Reformation with both internal reform at the council of Trent and external punishment for those who would not adhere to church doctrine in the form of the Jesuit order and the Roman Inquisition 12. “The Protestant Reformation was primarily an economic event.” By describing and determining the relative importance of the economic, political, and religious causes of the Protestant Reformation, defend or refute this statement. (1987) (Mc 14, P 2) Thesis: The Protestant Reformation was extremely complicated and had multiple phases. To each man there was a different interpretation; this is illustrated by the economic motives of Tetzel, religious devotion of Luther and Charles V’s search for political power. Info: ECONOMIC -Archbishop Albert- example of pluralism and sells indulgences for money -exchange of material goods for immaterial gifts -Albert hires Tetzel as his indulgences sales man -produces a lot of profit RELIGIOUS -Luther is completely devoted to god -saved by faith alone - pope has no authority, only scripture=”sola scriptura” -disagrees with indulgences (95thesis) -told to recant -doesn’t because he will stand up for what he believes in POLITICAL -Charles V= holy roman emperor, therefore catholic -own a lot of land -need unity -close with church so religious unity necessary for political unity 13. Compare and contrast the Lutheran Reformation and the Catholic Reformation of the sixteenth century regarding the reform of both religious doctrines and religious practices. (1998) (Mc 14, P 2) Evidence Lutheran Reformation: • Martin Luther o 1483-1546 o Went to University of Erfurt o Wrote Ninety-Five These, most important work • Protestantism o Different from Catholicism, 4 ways  Luther believed good works had nothing to do with salvation, only faith did  Luther believed authority lay in the scripture, not the pope  Believed followers (not just clergy) were part of the church  Believed a person could serve God ecclesiastically of secularly, both lead to salvation • Diet of Worms o 1521 o Luther refused to recant, fled to Saxony Catholic Reformation: o Response to Prot. Reformation o Started by council of Trent  Clarified doctrine  Reorganized clergy  Papal authority increased Thesis By writing the Ninety-Five Theses, Martin Luther greatly affected both Catholicism and Protestantism, since he ultimately created Protestantism in response to popular dislike of Catholic policies of the time, and also indirectly led to reforms in the Catholic Church because they were beginning to lose support to Protestantism. 14. Describe and analyze the ways in which the development of printing altered both the culture and the religion of Europe during the period 1450-1600. (1988) (Mc 13, 14, 15, P 2) Evidence • Johannes Gutenburg o 1408-1468 o Created first practical press w/moveable type in Mainz, around 1454 o Produced Bible in 1456 • Spread of the technology o Before European invention, printing happened in China  Used whole word type; very expensive o Paper readily available by mid 1400s o Not felt overnight  However governments switched over asap o Spurred jump in literacy  Material was often read to the illiterate; bridged the gap o Comparable to the invention of the Internet o See map 13.2, page 431 in Mckay • Use of the printing press o Allowed cheaper, easier political pamphlets and satires  Lead to the development of political parties  Made propaganda common o Martin Luther owes success to the printing press  His ideas were quickly spread around because of it o Caused decline in the use of Latin, since books began to be printed in the local vernacular  Lead to increased overall nationalism in countries Thesis Gutenburg’s invention of the practical printing press stimulated an almost complete rethinking of politics, because the ability to distribute printed ideas lead to political positions being spread around a huge amount faster than by word of mouth, and also a huge change in religion, because the capacity to get religious material, especially the Bible, in the hands of the common people lead to more independent study of doctrine. 15. In 1519 Charles of Hapsburg became Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor. Discuss and analyze the political, social, and religious problems he faced over the course of his imperial reign. (1990) (Mc 14, P 2-3) Thesis Statement: Charles V of HRE (Holy Roman Empire) faced challenges during his reign in both politics and religion. He inherited many territories all over Europe, including HRE: Spain, New World possessions, Austria, Italy, Sicily, Sardina, the Low Countries, and Southern Germany. Also during his reign, the Protestant Reformation was sweeping through Europe, converting many Catholics into Protestants Habsburg dynasty is an old-traditional Catholic monarchy and this phenomenon threatened the unity of HRE. Evidence: 1. He received various territories form his father and mother. Spain, New World possessions, Italy, Sicily, Sardina, Austria, Southern Germany, and the Low Countries. He faced a big problem of governing all these territories as the emperor of HRE and Habsburg, as they were scattered all over Europe, consisting many ethnicity groups of people and different societies 2. When he was elected as the emperor of HRE, The Protestant Reformation was sweeping Europe, taking its center at HRE, led by Martin Luther. Since Habsburgs were Catholics, it was a definite thereat to the unity of HRE as many German Princes converted to Protestantism. 16. Evaluate the relative importance of the religious rivalries and dynastic ambitions that shaped the course of the Thirty Years War. (1981) (Mc 15, P2-3) Thesis Statement: The Thirty Years War was the finale of Protestant Reformation and Counter-Reformation. The cause of the war was an inevitable war between Catholics and Protestants, and yet through the courses of the war, the countries that participated used religious justice as a toll to fulfill their ambitions. France aided Protestants to reduce Habsburg power, Habsburgs wanted to unite their territories under one religion so HRE became one big battlefield, and Sweden and Denmark tried to expand their influence over HRE and prevent Habsburgs unifying HRE under Catholicism. It was an opportunity to become dominant power for these countries and also protect their beliefs. Evidence: 1. France was a catholic country and yet they joined the Protestant Union during the war because they wanted to reduce Habsburgs’ power. 2. HRE was in disaster as one side composed Lutherans and the opposite composed Habsburg Catholics. HRE was already divided in half to begin with, one side of Lutherans and other side Habsburg Catholics. After the war, its population was reduced almost to half of its original size. 17. In the seventeenth century, how did England and the Dutch Republic compete successfully with France and Spain for control of overseas territory and trade. (1982) (Mc 15, P 4) Evidence o France  Had absolute monarchs  Colbert established mercantilism- only export, be self sufficient  Revocation of Edict of Nantes- tens of thousands of Huegenots left France to Holland, England, Prussia with negative feelings for France • France lost craftsmen, business men and soldiers and with that lost skill and tax revenue  Tax increase led to peasant revolts  War and expansion of bureaucracy cost lots of money and led France to debt  At war with Spain in 1643 o Spain  1498 the Spanish Inquisition reappeared- which led to the expulsion of Jews and Moors leaving Spain with a weak middle class • 40% of the Jewish population was killed or converted  Native slaves in the Americas died from disease and over work  Trade with the Americas fell which led to multiple bankruptcies and distrust in the state o England  Constitutional monarchy established 1688 after the Glorious Revolution (1688-89) which destroyed the belief of ruling by Divine Right and instituted the balance of powers (Parliament, House of Commons, Cabinet)  Traded with Spanish Colonies cutting of Spain’s revenue (Spain’s total revenue fell about 60%) o Netherlands (Dutch)  Also traded with Spanish Colonies which cut into Spain’s total revenue  Middle class held all the power (Oligarchy)  Religious toleration-people of all races traded in Amsterdam, fleeing populations (Jews) settled in the Netherlands and contributed to the success  Biggest merchant marines in Europe (16000 ships, half of Europe’s total number)  Political success rested on the commercial prosperity • Wealth depended mostly on the transportation rather than the exports • Dealt in bulk (like Costco) so no one could undersell them • Prosperity led to cheap prices Thesis: England and the Dutch Republic were successful in competing against France and Spain for control of overseas territory and trade through establishing non absolute governments, a constitutional monarchy in England and an oligarchy in the Netherlands, allowing religious toleration which led to a diversity in the population, and international trading, including with the Americas which paved the way for the financial problems of Spain. 18. Analyze the changes in the European economy from about 1450 to 1700 brought about by the voyages of exploration and colonization. (1992) (Mc 15,16,18,19, P 3) Evidence O Spain  Philip II ruled the first global empire • Rebuilt a better navy after the defeat of the Spanish Armada • Armed convoys protected ships carrying precious metals from French and English pirates • Had a continuous flow of money from the New World o The main industry in the Americas was mining for gold/silver- which made up 25% of Spain’s total revenue, which led to the monarchies dependency on this money to maintain power • Population increase- rise in demand for food • 1560-1600 inflation which the middle class prospered from because debts had less value • Migration of people to the colonies led to the exchanging of floral products, animals, plants, and disease o Corn, white potatoes, a variety of beans, squash, and pumpkins were introduced to Europe o Success in the Caribbean on sugar plantations led to rich owners because they didn’t have to pay for labor because they owned many slaves O Improvements/ Inventions  Cannons, galleys (long skinny boats), caravel (held more cargo), magnetic compasses, astrolabes (calculated latitude), better maps, and the verification that the Earth was round O Portugal  Henry the Navigator founded schools to study geography  King John II established trading posts and forts on the Guinea coast  By 1500 Portugal controlled the flow of gold into Europe  Vasco de Gama brought cloth and spices from India and trading posts were set up  Growth in territory- Brazil was claimed by Portugese O Netherlands  Antwerp and Amsterdam became commercial and financial capitals of Europe  Dutch East India Company was founded- a joint stock company • Control of American/African trading  Dutch West India Company • Brought wealth • Stored food for following year • High salaries for all • Thesis: The state of the economy throughout Europe shifted greatly due to exploration and colonization between the years 1450 and 1700, Spain grew rich from the success of its colonies but the mines were soon depleted leading Spain to multiple bankruptcies, the Netherlands cities became commercial and financial capitals of Europe due to low shipping rates and religious toleration, while Portugal established geography schools and trading posts globally. 19. In the seventeenth century, what political conditions accounted for the increased power of both the Parliament in England and the monarchy in France' (1982) (Mc 16, P 2,4) 20. Focusing on the period before 1600, describe and analyze the cultural and economic interactions between Europe and the Western Hemisphere as a result of the Spanish and Portuguese exploration and settlement. (1997) (Mc 15, P 3) Cultural: -exchange of diseases -“Golden Century of Spain” - Mexicans die rapidly - slave trade increases - global contacts increase - Christianity spreads Economic: - “Price Revolution” - inflation - exports (corn/potatoes) - silver/gold discoveries fuel Spanish economy Thesis: Spanish and Portuguese exploration and settlement in the Western Hemisphere transformed the economic world, but also caused disease, death, inflation, and a whole culture to nearly die off. Gold and silver found in the Americas increased Spanish wealth, but in turn inflation rose and Spain became overly dependent on foreign resources. 21. Analyze the ways in which both the theory and practice of monarchy evolved in England from 1603 (the death of Elizabeth I) to 1688-1689 (the Glorious Revolution). (1987) (Mc 15, P 3) Theory practice -king by divine right, rejection of parliament, James I Rule by will of God and responsible only to God -Petition of Right- king could not levy taxes Charles I Without approval of Parliament, impose forced Loans on his subjects, declare martial law in Peacetime, imprison citizens without trial, or Quarter troops in private homes Under Commonwealth, political power in hands Cromwell Of one-house parliament, while Council of State Conduct day-to-affairs of government Restoration of 1660, no attempt to reestablish Charles II Royal absolutism, and generally avoid conflicts With parliament attempted to impose royal absolutism, joint James II leadership or consent of people Constitutional Monarchy THESIS: The theory and practice of monarchy evolved in England as a balance of power weighing heavily in favor of the monarchy and quickly tilting towards the battle hardened Parliaments emerging from the various king/parliament struggles. Starting with James I and his divine right attitude, continuing with attempts by Parliament to wrest control such as the Petition of Right, to the joint leadership model based on the consent of the people in James II reign, resulting in a constitutional monarchy and a Bill of Rights that set the bar for leadership in Europe for decades to come. 22. Describe and analyze the changes in the role of Parliament in English politics between the succession of James I and the Glorious Revolution. (1993) (Mc 16, P 4) - James I (divine right of kings) - Charles I (dissolves parliament (1629-1640) “Long Parliament” (1640-60) -limit power of the king -made arbitrary gov’t “Triennial Act” (1641): -king forced to summon parliament every 3 years “Militia Ordinance”(1642): - parliament could choice lieutenants ( passed w/o royal assent) English Civil War: -sovereignty in king or parliament' -Oliver Cromwell (parliament gone by 1653) -Charles II (good relations w/parliament) “Claredon Code “(1661-1665): -re-establish Church of Eng. -restrict R. Catholics “Test Act” (1673): - all officeholders must be of the Anglican faith James II (appoint R. Catholics) - opposed by parliament and people, chased out of office Thesis: Constant struggling between the English Parliament and the king caused confusion over who should have sovereignty over the people. Laws created by Parliament limited the king’s power and created an Anglican society, which shaped the future of England’s political power in Europe. 23. “In seventeenth-century England the aristocracy lost its privileges but retained its power; in seventeenth-century France the aristocracy retained its privileges but lost its power.” Assess the accuracy of the statement with respect to political events and social developments in the countries in the seventeenth century. (1985) (Mc 16, P 4) England France Aristocracy king Louis XIV Petition of Right Versailles King cannot do these without -retain their wealth Approval of Parliament -lost their social status • Tax No parliamentary power • War -taxation • Laws -war -legal representation Cromwell - political power in Parliament , Fronde threaten French monarchy Which increase their power Bill of Rights Richelieu Guarantee Parliament freedom of speech Aristocracy who held high offices in the And immunity from prosecution for government, the military, and the church often used Statements made in parliamentary debate their power to advance their own individual and class -king cannot levy taxes w/o Par. Approval, interests. Gradually reduced influence of nobility. Maintain standing army in peacetime, and Intendants  reduced power of nobility Interfere in Par. elections THESIS: The above statement is incredibly accurate because in England, the struggle for power went up as privilege went down, but in France it turned out to be the opposite. In England, legislation such as the Petition of Right through the Parliament’s Bill of Rights exemplified the changing relationship of Parliament’s power at the expense of the monarchy while at the same time the decrease in aristocratic privilege as Parliament became more and more a reflection of a rising wealthy and non aristocratic leadership in the House of Commons. In France, through Louis XIV, using distractions such as Versailles, the aristocracy retained their wealth and their social status, while ministers like Richelieu, and Manzarin incorporated monarchical policies which gradually reduced their power and authority. 24. Analyze the major ways through which Tsar Peter the Great (1689-1725) sought to reform his society and its institutions order to strengthen Russia and its position in Europe. (1985) (Mc 17, P 5) 25. Analyze the influence of the theory of mercantilism on the domestic and foreign policies of France, 1600-1715. (1995) (Mc 16, P 4) Thesis: Louis XIV’s Chief Financial Minister, Jean-Babtiste Colbert, helped solve Louis’s financial problems by enforcing the theory of mercantilism. By doing this, it increased the country’s money by sending out more exports than receiving imports. Mercantilism helped create a more self-sufficient country so there wouldn’t be so many tariffs and subsides for domestic industries.  Financial problems wakened Louis XIV administration  Louis Chief Financial Minister o Jean-Babtiste Colbert  Used subsides for domestic industries  Tariffs  Policies to make France self-sufficient and to boost French exports on mercantilism  Theory of Mercantilism o Series of government policies designed to increase countries money  France took it to extreme More exports than imports 26. Analyze the military, political, and social factors that account for the rise of Prussia between 1640 and 1786. (1991) (Mc 17, P 5) Thesis Just as taxation for war caused the Prussian states to be united under Frederick William instead of the Estates, the development of the disciplined and highly trained Prussian army was part of the development of a strict society under Frederick William I during the 1700s. Again war helped Prussia double its population under Frederick II, but after the near defeat of the Seven Years’ War, the focus of the monarchy shifted to improving Prussian government and laws. Evidence Military Political Social • Swedish-Polish War • Frederick William the Great Elector unified 3 provinces by gaining the right to tax w/o consent for war, drive for more soldiers • Frederick William I created the most disciplined/best army in W. Europe, enlisted nobility • Frederick II gains Silesia in the War of the Austrian Succession; then almost loses in the Seven Years’ War. • Hohenzollern family ruled as imperial electors until The Great Elector united his territories with power gained by unrestrained taxation. • Frederick William I strengthened bureaucracies • Frederick II reforms laws and gives more privileges to nobility • Frederick William I made a disciplined and rigid/militaristic society. • The Great Elector and Frederick II were both friendly to the nobility while allowing the peasants’ condition to remain under tyranny. • The nobility got stronger while serfdom and hereditary subjugation continued. 27. Describe and analyze the economic, cultural, and social changes that led to and sustained Europe’s rapid population growth in the period from approximately 1650 to 1800. (1997) (Mc 16-20, P 4-8) Thesis The major developments of improved sanitation and famine relief in absolutist states, groundbreaking innovations in agriculture, expanded industry through colonialism and the putting-out system, “cleaner” wars, and younger marriages caused a population explosion in Europe through lower mortality and higher birth rates by the 18th century. Evidence Economic Cultural Social • Improvements and innovations in agriculture led to fewer famines and periods of starvation. • (English) colonial economy and trade allowed for more population and workers. • Mercantilism strengthened the state, but also had aspects that improved and expanded the economy in general. • The putting-out system encouraged bigger peasant families and was an advance in the general economy and industry. • Economic centralization in Eastern Europe allowed for populations to grow a little bit more, even if many lived miserable lives. • Towards the end of the 1700s, a new interest in children encouraged by the Enlightenment caused more care for child health. • The secularist philosophy of the Enlightenment caused monarchs and the upper class to no longer engage in religious conflicts or wars. • Women began marrying at a younger age, because of new employment in rural industry, which caused them to have more children. • Permanent, disciplined armies created less collateral damage (civilian deaths) in wars. • The quarantine and inspection for plagues and illnesses at ports and other transfer points improved, thus preventing epidemics. • A smallpox cure was introduced to most of W. Europe by the late 1700s. • Utilities, such as the water supply, became more sanitary in absolutist states, reducing the number of disease-carrying insects. • Food supplies were better guarded and stored, and transportation improvements in absolutist states allowed food to be delivered to famine-struck areas. 28. In what ways did the Enlightenment thinkers build on or make the use of the ideas of Newton and Locke' (1983) (Mc 18, P 8)  Enlightenment thinkers built off or made use of the ideas of Newton and Locke both scientifically and philosophically. With Newton, scientists heard Newton’s law of gravity and applied it to scientific problems to gain new information. However, with Locke, many built on his philosophy of how the mind is a blank slate and is just a combination of impressions. Newton Locke  Scientists made use of Newton’s law of gravity  One of the people to start the scientific revolution  David Hume built off Locke’s saying that the human mind is really nothing but a bundle of impressions  Marie-jean Caritat transformed the Enlightenment belief in gradual, hard won progress into fanciful utopianism 29. Compare and contrast the views of Machiavelli and Rousseau on human nature and the relationship between government and the governed. (1984) (Mc 13,18, P2, 7-9) 30. Compare and contrast the cultural values of the Enlightenment with those of the sixteenth-century Northern Renaissance. (1982) (Mc 13&18, P 2&8) The enlightenment and renaissance eras, differed greatly from each other with art vs. science, independent thinking over intellectual, striving to be recognized compared to not having the right to even publicly show your work and many other aspects, however religion stayed constant from century to century and was accepted although it always brought problems upon society in both time periods. EVIDENCE: Enlightenment: Theories Philosophies Independent thinking Science (discoveries/interest) Urban culture Public Opinion No freedom of writing Recognition not important Renaissance: Art Intellectual thinking Strived for recognition Individualism Humanism Secularism Similar Religion Protestants Christians Catholics Church accepted 31. Describe the new astronomy of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries and analyze the ways it changed scientific methods and thought. (1991) (Mc 18, P 7-8) The minds of the people of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries changed drastically when Copernicus brought forth the heliocentric universe, leading to the existence of new scientific methods like the experimental method as well as inductive and deductive reasoning which ultimately created better accuracy to theories, however angered the Catholic church to a great extent by going against beliefs and causing an uproar of confusion. EVIDENCE: • Heliocentric theory by Copernicus • Discovery of acceleration of gravity • 3 laws of planetary motion • Experimental method: conducting controlled experiments to find out what really happened • Law of inertia: an object continues in motion forever unless stopped by an external force • No one believed theories • Books not allowed to be written on ideas • Protestants got upset • Martin Luther and John Calvin went against ideas and got church to agree 32. How did the new developments in scientific thought from Copernicus to Newton create a new conception of the universe and humanity’s place in it' (1984) (Mc 18, P 7) Thesis: The Copernican hypothesis had major scientific and religious implications, Kepler's three laws that were formed of planetary motion and Galiliei's discovery of the laws of motion using the experimental method, and Newton's universal law of gravitation. It created new knowledge for the people of their time, and changed key aspects of scientific knowledge. Evidence: Copernicus- destroyed the basic idea of Aristotelian physics, theory destroyed the beliefs that crystal spheres were capable of moving the stars around earth, his hypothesis had major effects in the future Kepler- famous for the 3 laws that he formed of planetary motion Galilei- discoverd the laws of motion using the experimental method, instead of studying what should happen he conducted controlled experiments to find out what actually DID happen Newton- better known for his Newtonian synthesis, which was the universal law of gravitation, whole universe is unified in one majestic system (his beliefs) 33. Analyze the ways in which Enlightenment thought addressed religious beliefs and social issues in the eighteenth century. (1994) (Mc 18, P 7) 34. To what extent did the Enlightenment express optimistic ideas in the eighteenth-century' Illustrate your answer with references to specific individuals and their works. ( 35. “In the eighteenth century, people turned to the new science for a better understanding of the social and economic problems of the day.” Assess the validity of this statement by using specific examples from the Enlightenment era.