Essay_on__Analyse_the_Basic_Ideas_of_Fascism_and_the_Nature_of_Its_Appeal_in_Interwar_Europe._Use_Examples_from_at_Least_Two_Countries.

Essay on: Analyse the basic ideas of Fascism and the nature of its appeal in interwar Europe. Use examples from at least two countries. In this essay I will discuss the basic ideas of Fascism and the nature of its appeal in the period between the two Great Wars. Moreover I will present the failure of democracy together with the international treaties which did not succeed and the impact of Great Depression as important factors in this appeal. Firstly, I will 06/03/2011-23:17:03 consider the most important characteristics of Fascism described by scholars like Roger Griffin, Eugene Weber and Andrew Heywood: anti-liberalism, anti-conservatism, anti-rationalism, totalitarianism, racism, elitism. Secondly, I will explain why Fascism appeared to be the answer to people‟s needs and why it was appealed by the nation. As an ideology Fascism was developed in contradiction to modernity and Enlightenment ideas. (Heywood, 1998:212). It can be seen as an anti-ideology with characteristics such as: anti-liberalism, anti-conservatism, anti-rationalism and others. In order to analyse Fascism as an ideology I will draw on research by Roger Griffin (1995), Eugene Weber (1964) and Andrew Heywood (1998). Firstly, Fascism is an interesting ideology to analyse; there are some core ideas that can be identified. Roger Griffin emphasizes the mythic core of Fascism, the idea of salvation, of rebirth of the country from a crisis time. This can be seen in fascists slogans such as: “Germany awake”, “New Italy”, or the Romanian Iron Guard appeal for the New Man („omul nou‟). Fascism argued that this is what the nation needed in those times of crisis: a revolution in thinking, something new and strong to bring them back the hope, an “ultra-nationalism ideology”: „Fascism is a genus of political ideology whose mythic core in its various permutation is a palingenetic form of populist ultra-nationalism‟ (Griffin, 1995:3-4). The first characteristic of Fascism noted in the introduction is that Fascism is anti-liberalism. Roger Griffin argues that important core of Fascism call for national unity against an enemy, a country or an internal enemy such as Jews, which might violate their unity. This opposes some important aspects of liberalism: pacifism, individualism, tolerance, and even the open society (Griffin, 1995: 4). Moreover, it blames another idea of liberalism: the capitalism. Fascists think that capitalism is characterized by greed and that it works just for a group of people, not for the entire nation: „The capitalist system is dominated by profit. The capitalist‟s age is characterized by selfishness... In its present form, capitalism is condemned to disappear because it has not associated the majority of producers to the distributive processes. (E.Weber, 1964: 13-14). Secondly, its myth core of nation rebirth and believing that through reform the people will be united contradicts the conservative politics. Even if Fascism recalls the past, it does so just to remind the people about the heroes of their country to 06/03/2011-23:17:03 give an example and a reminder on their great nation. (Griffin, 1995:4-5). Thirdly, Fascism is a anti-rational ideology: „It is not the reason celebrated in the Enlightenment, humanist, and positivist tradition, but in the capacity to be inspired to heroic action and self-sacrifice through the power of belief, myth, symbols, and idees-forces such as the nation, the leader, identity or the regeneration of history‟ (Griffin, 1995:6). This is what brought people together, the simple belief in the energy provided by unity, not the reason in their action. Moreover, Friederich Nietzche explained that the „will of power‟ is the source of the people`s actions, which cause them to feel powerful emotions. In addition, the French philosopher Henri Bergson brings about the theory of „life force‟: the purpose of people`s action in their lives has to be conducted by „expressing the life force‟ not responding to the reasons of their action (Heywood, 1998:216-217). According to this point of view, anarchism has its resemblance in Fascism, believing that the action is more important than the reason; nobody should be constrained by law (as an expression of Reason). However, this principle of free-will never applied in fascist Italy or Nazi Germany. The state controlled every aspect of life with their laws and oppressive police. Fascists claim that elitism is natural, whether political or economic, in contrast with other ideologies, such as democracy and socialism, where equality is the core idea. They say that every man is born with different qualities and imperfections. Thus it is important for those who are born with leadership, intelligence and courage, to take action, to lead the nation. They are also characterised by „heroism, vision and the capacity for self-sacrifice‟ (Heywood, 1998: 220). With this priority on leaders, Mussolini called himself Il Duce, and Hitler set as example for his people under the name of Der Fuhrer. Both with unlimited powers and absolute authority (one principle of Fascism in Italy was „Mussolini is always right‟), they maintained their image in front of the people through popular demonstrations and personal contact with the people. (Heywood, 1998: 220). Another aspect of Fascism is its politics of racism. Griffin argues that its racism does not necessarily includes anti-Semitism, or any hatred against other „internal enemies‟ such as Roma/Gypsies, Muslims, Hungarians, homosexuals or AfroAmericans; Fascisms is just an ideology which is against cosmopolitan, a diverse 06/03/2011-23:17:03 society, with different religions, cultures or races. Their ultra-nationalism makes them blame immigrants for leaving their homeland and instead of fighting and working for their countries (Griffin, 1995:7-8). Nevertheless, the terms Fascism and racism are commonly associated, but as Heywood makes it clear „not all forms of Fascism involve overt racialism, and not all racialists are necessarily fascists”. For instance, Italian Fascism was based only on the supremacy of Mussolini over the nation, regardless of their race, or colour. Moreover, Mussolini introduced the anti-Semitic laws in 1937 just to gain the good will of Hitler. Whereas in Nazi Germany the ideology was to promote the Aryan race, described as the pure one, any attempt to destroy its purity, by mixed marriages was condemned. The Nuremburg Laws in 1935 prohibited any sexual relations between Germans and Jews. The particular hate against Jews had its theological sense: Jews were said to be responsible for the death of Christ in addition to the principle of Aryan supremacy (Heywood, 1998, 227-232). The last characteristic is totalitarianism. The totalitarian regimes were defined by some characteristics: they have an official ideology, a single party system, an intimidating police, monopoly over media, army and economic life. The fascist is a convinced believer in the fact that a “perfectly co-ordinated national community” can solve the issues of the society and this belief was activated by totalitarianism. But only two fascist movements have tried to control the society in order to implement their ideas: Fascism and Nazism. Mussolini was committed to educate the people with „moral purpose and heroism‟ in order to work and fight for the State. Moreover, Nazi Germany was very close in succeeding this ideal. They controlled the media, education and youth organisations and the political repression was effective (Griffin, 1995: 6-7). The following important topic of the essay is the reason of the appealing of Fascism to the nations. One of the most important factors that made Fascism appealing in the inter-war Europe was the incapacity of democracy to solve the problems that emerged after World War I. This failure cleared the political stage for the rise of Fascism. H.Kohn, back in his time, believed that democracy was: „a mutual regard and compromise‟, „a refusal to identify with one dogma‟, „individual liberty‟ (Stephen J.Lee, 2008:15). Because of these characteristics people thought that 06/03/2011-23:17:03 democracy would bring peace and harmony. Therefore, universal suffrage was introduced after the First World War and the power of parliaments was strengthened. Unfortunately, democratic regimes were faced with big issues: the peace settlements left behind unsatisfied countries. Economic crisis and Great Depression followed. Even though Italy was on the winning side in World War I, due to political and economic crises it became the first Fascist state. After Italy was refused territories promised in the secret Treaty of London in 1915 (the areas of Tyrol, Northern Dalmatia and others), a financial crisis was followed by heavy taxation and big loans. Italians had to pay war expenses after disastrous defeat against Austrians and Germans at the battle of Caporetto in 1917. With the industry of war being stopped, unemployment grew and so did inflation and prices. In this situation, even the nationalists no longer believed in their nation and government. Five governments lost votes of confidence between the end of the war and the Fascist coup of October 1922. This was due to political crisis, characterized by disruption between parties and even within them. After the introduction of proportional representation, the Socialists won 156 deputies. In response, Giolitti, the former liberal Prime Minister made an alliance with the Fascists in order to use them against the Left. This was a big mistake. In the general election of May 1921 the Fascists gained 35 seats and guaranteed by Giolitti, police protection and governmental influence. Due to the failings of Liberals and Popolari to create an opposition, and the King, who did not want a civil war between fascists and army, Mussolini was named Prime Minister. Afterwards it was just a matter of time until the fascists controlled the policy-making of Italy. An electoral law was ratified which gave the Fascists two-thirds of the seats in the Chamber. They also introduced censorship and a ban on political meetings of the opposition, and in 1925 they introduced a law which made the Prime Minister responsible only to the King. Therefore the Fascist era began. (Roberts, 2001:358367). In a nutshell, I believe that Fascism emerged in Italy because of the instability of the democratic political scene, and the support from the people who believed its energy would bring security and purpose. Moreover, it had support from the aristocratic class and the Church to whom Mussolini showed willingness and 06/03/2011-23:17:03 moderation. All of these factors were made possible by Mussolini who succeeded to organise the Fascists, and manage their politics in order to develop political relations and enable his leadership to gain the popularity. Democracy was established in Germany on 9 November 1918, but it was seen as unpatriotic, anti-national and weak. One of the biggest mistakes of the Democratic Government was to accept the humiliating armistice. Germany lost 27, 00 square miles of territory, 7 million people, and territories in Tanganyika and South Africa. They had to give Alsace-Lorraine to France and to provide access to the sea for Poland. War debts were added on the top of this. (Briggs & Calvin, 2003:204). The Germans were completely humiliated and punished. Therefore, one of the main reasons for the appeal of Hitler was the vulnerability of democratic Weimar Republic. Firstly, the Weimar Constitution introduced many democratic features such as proportional representation. This led to a government with many parties with neither of them having majority of seats. This slowed down the process of policymaking which in a time of economic crisis was unbearable. The fascist appeal to the nation was promoted by activists like Moeller, van den Bruck and Junger, with antiWestern and anti-democratic beliefs. The nation seemed to respond well by criticising the Weimar politicians. This led to an authoritarian government being introduced in 1930, considered by Hitler as a great opportunity. After that, in 1933 he was appointed German chancellor and turned Germany into a Nazi dictatorship. The economic crisis was an important factor which led people to believe in extremist solutions, expressed by both Left and Right-wing parties. As General Morgan of the Disarmament Commission explained: „Inflation has destroyed the equipoise of society. It has ruined the middle classes and impoverished the workers... Inflation has undermined the political basis of the Republic and concentrated all real power in the hands of a few, namely this great industrialists‟ (Lee, 2008: 191) Under this circumstances, of political instability, economic crisis, failure of the international treaties, Hitler knew how to benefit from the nation`s dissatisfaction into helping him to gain power. He used the Propaganda and the strict organisation of the party to win the people`s appeal as he clearly explained: „Propaganda works on the general public from the standpoint of an idea and makes them ripe for the victory of this idea, while the organization achieves victory by the persistent organic, 06/03/2011-23:17:03 and militant union of those supporters who seem willing and able to carry on the fight for victory.‟(Lee, 2008:191). What is more, he understood what the nation wanted and how their beliefs and ideas of politics work: „the receptivity of the great masses is very limited, their intelligence is small, but their power of forgetting is enormous‟ (Lee, 2008:192) Therefore, he used loudspeakers, provocative posers and bands, keeping his message simple and memorable. Also he always had a direct and brave message. As a result the nation saw in Hitler a true “soldier”, a person who is brave enough to confront with the nation`s issues. An example is the criticisms he brought on the government`s foreign policy, accusing the Versailles Settlement and taking advantage of this failure of the government. With his charismatic leadership he succeeded in winning the middle classes‟ votes. They believed he will strengthen the economy. Moreover the landowners, businessmen and industrialists saw in Hitler a good opponent for the communists and socialists, of which they were threatened. The women believed that the Nazi regime defends the institution of the family in such crisis times. The Nazism appealed even to the young men because of the simple solutions to the unemployment and the attack on the traditional ideas and institutions. (Lee, 2008, 187-197) In brief, Hitler and Mussolini appealed to the people as they could bring solutions in such troubled times to most of the nation. They succeeded in doing that, knowing what the nation wants and how it can be manipulated. As Eugene Weber says: “Fascism lives and thrives in an atmosphere of crisis” (1964:36). Fascism appeared to be the movement which will succeed in those times to gather the nation together and fight for a specific purpose (economical, social). A French right-wing terrorist once declared: „The question we seek to solve is of a higher order... we have to find the Idea, the dynamic of salvation, the dynamic of action. Only an Ideal, a Mystique, is likely to redeem us, to raise us, to make possible the redeeming ascent towards the bright pinnacles of the future‟ (Weber, 1964:36). In my opinion, this is what the people needed in those countries, and people thought that Hitler and Mussolini represented the best answer those request. They appeared as the power of the united nation giving the people hope in 06/03/2011-23:17:03 better and simple solution to their current issues. To conclude, Fascism had a great impact on the economical, social and political world history. Its appeal was enormous in the inter-war period (in countries like Spain, Portugal, Hungary, Romania and others) because of the failure of democracy to present a good solution to the problems of those times. Therefore, due to its basic ideas: anti-liberalism, anti-conservatism, anti-rationalism, totalitarianism, racism and elitism, Fascism was able to provide unity and purpose, two things that socialism and liberalism could not provide. As an ideology, Fascists made their politics with moderation and opportunism, changing their philosophy in order to achieve immediate results. This was a great advantage because they were not constrained by their ideology in making their policy-decision. The Fascism, as in influential ideology, brought indeed hope and unity to the people, but as a totalitarian regime with their utopic ideas of organising the society at their will, seemed to be a failure in the end. Bibliography Briggs, Assa, and Patricia Clavin. Modern Europe 1789-present. 2nd ed. Edinburgh: Pearson/Longman, 2003 Griffin, Roger. Fascism. Oxford: Oxford UP, 1995. Heywood, Andrew. Political Ideologies: an Introduction. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 1998 Lee, Stephen J. European Dictatorships: 1918-1945. London: Routledge, 2008 Roberts, John M. Europe: 1880 - 1945. Harlow: Longman, 2001. 06/03/2011-23:17:03 Weber, Eugene. Varietes of Fascism. New York: D.Van Nostrand, 1964