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SECTION 1: INTRODUCTION. This report will explore the macro and micro nutrients important in the diet, of Paralympics swimmer, Rachael Latham. It will investigate the best possible pre and post-training nutrition and hydration, best suited to Rachael’s competition goals and specific needs; and look at ‘optimum nutrition’, which Holford,(2008) describes as the “The best possible intake of nutrients to allow your body and brain to be as healthy as possible-and work as well as it can.”(Holford, p12, 2008). The basic components of swimming are Aerobic fitness, endurance, speed, flexibility and strength, according to Juba, 2001. So these factors must be considered when compiling the optimum diet to suit Rachael’s needs for training and the Olympics. It will also take into account the customer retention of the national governing body (NGB) of Rachael’s sport, also paying attention to customer care and expectations (and changing expectations) that we (nutritional advisory) would expect from a professional body in this field. SECTION 2: NUTRITION. Nutritional science is based upon the chemical breakdown of foods (nutrients), and the understanding of these nutrients or alimentation (nourishment maintenance) in order to comprehend the function and role of them, within our bodies, cites Herring, 2004. Since Hippocrates time (460-377B.C.), the effects of food on the human body have been studied. Most famously, the English physician William Stark (1740-70), who lived (briefly) on a very restricted diet: to see if possible; he died of scurvy nine months later, at 29, indicating it wasn’t, mentions Rooney,2009. Sadly, fruit and vegetables featured later, in his testing diets, and he never got that far. Basically there are three macro nutrients (required in significant amounts in the diet), carbohydrate, lipids (fats and related compounds) and protein, and the micro nutrients (required in small amounts) are vitamins and minerals (Bean, 2006). Water is commonly known as the sixth nutrient and the body requires over 2 litres p/day. It is also worth noting the importance of plant components, known as ‘phytochemicals’ (found in fruit & vegetables), which are ‘bioactive’ (have biological effects on body) and give us antioxidants, which protect us against diseases, certain cancers and cardiovascular disease (C.D) and aid recovery in the resting athlete, mentions Donnelly, 2008. The bench-mark of intake of these nutrients is the ‘Eat well plate model’ (compiled in the UK by New Labour), which is a widely accepted percentage guide (or pie chart) to the food we should eat every day for optimum nutrition (see table 1), (government research, Food Standards Agency, 2007b). Firstly carbohydrates, which is the main fuel for our body; come in two forms, simple or complex (or sugar & starch) and are 4.1 kcal/g (Donnelly, 2008).Dietary carbohydrates (CHO) are vital for the structural basis of D.N.A. (Herring, 2004). CHO,s are the primary energy source, particularly in the form of glycogen in the muscles (CHO,s in the digestive system are broken down into glucose, when stored in muscles or liver they are called glycogen, 2/3s stored in muscles and 1/3 stored in liver, around 1600 calories in all) mentions Donnelly, 2008. Stored glycogen is only sufficient for 24 hours, so an athlete like Rachael will need a constant supply of quality, training specific carbohydrates (Karinch, 2002). There is a huge difference between complex and simple carbohydrates (even though essentially they are both sugars). Sugars are empty calories, and have no nutritional value other than immediate (or quick sourced) energy. Whereas complex (such as seeds, fruits and vegetables) contain vitamins and minerals and provide dietary bulk or ‘fibre’ in addition to the nutrient starch, which gives us satiety (or a feeling of fullness),essential for gut function (Herring, 2004). Fibre (roughage) is simply plant skeletons and there are two types ‘soluble’ (found in oats, beans, legumes, fruit & vegetables- may have a role in lowering blood cholesterol levels) and ‘insoluble’ (bran, breads, cereals and wide range of fruit & vegetables-they hold water in digestive tract, increasing bulk, stimulating the muscle to retain health and tone, preventing constipation, haemorrhoids and severe bowel problems). If too much fibre is consumed, it can decrease transit times in gut and may limit time available for absorption of essential nutrients, fundamental to an athlete (Herring, 2004). Whereas if too many simple carbohydrates are consumed, medical conditions like hypoglycaemia, diabetes and obesity can occur. These points are important to an athlete as a fine balance, specific to training and competition must be sought for optimum nutrition and health. It is also important to differentiate between the two as they both release sugars into the blood stream at different times, this is called the glycemic index (see table 2), (Herring, 2004).This index is basically a guide to the speed of carbohydrate sugar release into the blood stream (Gallop, 2004). This is fundamental to Rachael to regulate and store, the right amount of energy for training and competition, reaching her goals. It is generally recommended that 55-60% of a healthy balanced diet comes from carbohydrates (Donnelly, 2008). Lipids (fats & oils) are 9.3 kcal/g and there are two types, saturated (commonly known as ‘hard fat’, as it is solid at room temperature), or unsaturated (liquid at room temperature), (Donnelly, 2008). Unsaturated fats can be further divided into polyunsaturated (found in fish, nuts and seeds) and monounsaturated (oils such as olive oil). Monounsaturated appear to protect against C.D. Whilst polyunsaturated fats are ‘essential’ (are termed so as the body can’t produce them, so are taken through food consumption, Herring, 2008). The two essential polyunsaturated fats are linoleic acid and alpha linoleic acid, found in omega6 (sesame, sunflower and borage oil) and omega 3 (pumpkin seeds, fish oils and linseed), respectively referred to as n-6 & n-3, mentions Donnelly, 2008. The body further converts n-6 & n-3 into ‘prostaglandins’ which are named type 1&2 and type 3 respectively. The benefits of these prostaglandins to the body are represented in appendix A. Additional benefits of fat to Rachael are also thermoregulation, protection of internal organs, and insulation of nerve cells. It is recommended that 25-30% of fat is in the diet for optimum nutrition (Donnelly, 2008). Proteins are made up of long chains of ‘amino acids’. The word protein itself means ‘primary importance’. Twenty of these amino acids occur naturally, and eight are deemed essential to the body, so must be obtained through diet. The other twelve (non- essential) can be synthesised by the liver if all of the other eight are present in large enough amounts (Donnelly, 2008). Proteins are vital to the athlete for muscle building & development, tissue repair, hormones, enzymes and energy supply (in form of ATP) if fats and carbohydrate sources are depleted, mentions Sharkey & Gaskill, 2007. Proteins are sourced in fish, meats, beans & legumes, eggs and dairy products. Generally 15% of protein, from a healthy balanced diet is recommended, on the eatwell plate. However, it is generally accepted that training athletes consume 1.2-1.7 (depending on endurance, strength or speed training)grams of per Kg of weight, yet body builders would consume 2g’s per kilo body weight and the general public 0.75g’s per Kg of body weight, according to Donnelly, 2008. Vitamins have a biochemical function in the body, they are needed in conjunction with enzymes to allow chemical reactions within cells e.g. the transport of glucose from blood into cells depends upon the presence vitamins B3 & B6, and the actual breakdown of glucose within the cells into energy require B1, B2, B3, B5 and C. Vitamins assist in energy supply and come in two categories, water soluble and fat soluble. Water soluble is groups B and C and is essential in the control of extraction of energy from food and growth of new body tissue, essential to Rachael. Fat soluble are, A (essential for vision), D (bone growth and calcium regulation), E (antioxidant, protects cells against chemical damage) and K (blood clotting), (Herring, 2004), all essential to Rachael in her sport. Minerals are also essential to the body and make up around 4% of its tissue (Herring, 2004).They are single chemical elements involved in various processes in the body (Webster-Gandy, 2000). The following major minerals are fundamental and benefit Rachael in her sport; calcium (strong bones, regulate fluid balance and move muscles smoothly and prevent cramping ,found in dairy products, fish and dark leafy veg, Ursell, 2001), phosphorus (metabolizing carbohydrates and synthesising proteins, found in shellfish, turkey and liver, Ursell, 2001), magnesium (bone reproduction, found in seeds, nuts, wheat and bran, Ursell, 2001), sodium(vital in maintenance of water concentration in blood and body fluids) and potassium and chloride (known as the principal electrolytes, Rinzler, 2004) and sulphur, an integral part of all proteins(Rinzler, 204). The other minerals known as trace elements are iron, zinc, iodine, copper, selenium, manganese, fluoride, chromium, molybdenum and choline (see table 3 for their sources and importance to functions in the body). Water is commonly known as the sixth nutrient and arguably the most important as 60 % of our body is made up of it (Herring, 2004). It aids many of the vitamin functions in the body and is a source for many electrolytes and minerals, thus contributing to our intake of these nutrients. It is important to pay Rachael extra attention with her hydration; because she is still an adolescent and children are less efficient thermo regulators than adults (Herring, 2004) and because of her disability, according to Wicebloom, 2007. Replacing fluid lost during exercise is crucial. Exercise performance is compromised through fluid loss; a 2% loss in body weight can cause a loss of 10 % in performance (Stear, 2004). Swimmers don’t generally think of hydration because are constantly in an environment surrounded by water. Advice to Rachael on hydration is as follows:- Before exercise :- • Always start every session well hydrated. • 400-600ml of water/sports drink in 2 hrs before exercise help hydrate body. During exercise :- • Aim to drink enough to limit fluid lost as sweat. • Drink smaller volumes more frequently (minimizing stomache discomfort). • Don’t drink so much you actually gain weight during exercise. Post exercise :- • How much fluid you need depends on how much you have lost. • Drink 1.2-1.5 L fluid for every Kg weight lost during exercise (Stear, 2004). Sports drinks come in three types; hypertonic- more concentrated than the blood, so Forcing water to leave the blood and enter the gut by the process of osmosis, so not a useful hydrator. Hypotonic- such as water and have a much lower concentration than the blood. Isotonic drinks- have the same concentration as the blood and are therefore the most rapid rehydrator. This would be most beneficial to Rachael during competition. Rachael is an elite athlete, part of the British swimming Olympic potential programme, she trains eight times per week presumably 3-4 hrs per/day, so according to Bean, 2007, she will need 8-10g of carbohydrates per kg of her weight. At 50Kg she will need 4-500g of carb’s every day in training. For competition her energy demands are high. She swims between 50 and 200M at very high intensity, so most of her energy is anaerobic, between 50-95% according to Heaney, 2008, the rest aerobic. So her main fuel source will be carbohydrates (Juba, 2001).Generally speaking, the week before competition it is important to fill up your glycogen stores and keep well hydrated (juba, 2001).It is vital to replace muscle glycogen stores immediately after training, the week before, if you don’t you will have low energy stores for the race (carbohydrate loading), mentions Juba, 2001. This should generally be done with high GI foods eg jaffa cakes or white bread, to restore muscle glycogen quickly, according to Bean, 2007, immediately after training. McArdle et al, 2001, argues of the confusion regarding pre exercise ingestion and simple sugars. Some research argues that consuming rapidly absorbed high GI carb’s before exercise can rapidly deplete glycogen stores, in turn negatively affecting performance. Suggestion to Rachael would be a more moderate GI snack prior to competition 1-2hrs before a race. On the day of competition her main aim will be to top up glycogen stores in the liver and keep well hydrated, ensuring blood sugar levels are maintained and stave of hunger (Juba, 2001). Juba, 2001, also recommends eating one main meal (high in carbs) 2-4hrs before competition, so blood sugar is normalised and stomach is empty and Bean, 2006 & 2007 seems to agree this. A typical meal plan for before, during and after a race could be as follows :- The night before • Pasta or rice dishes with tomato-based sauces • Water 2-4hrs before • Wheetabix & soya milk(wheat germ and soy contain choline, which break down fats and reduce lactic acid build up, fundamental to Rachael as a swimmer),white toast s/wiches, rolls, potatoes. • Water 1hr before • Sports drink • Energy or sports nutrition bar • Dried apricots • Water 15-30 minutes before • Water • Sports drink Between Heats • Sports drinks • Meal replacement products • Bananas • Rice cakes, energy bars, rolls Post Competition • Sports drinks (high NRG/glucose) • Jaffa cakes • Energy bars • Pasta/Rice dishes • Pizza (all sourced from Bean, 2007 & Juba,2001) SECTION 3: CUSTOMER CARE: As Rachael is an international Paralympics hopeful, the national governing body (NGB),that provides for her and influences financial decisions on her sporting career and interests; will obviously want frequent progress reporting on her training and nutritional needs and costs. As the NGB will probably be financing all professional nutritional training and advice, on behalf of Rachael, they will be our main customer and must be cared for as such. Yet not forgetting, it is Rachael who is important here and her needs and demands are fundamental. It is worth noting that Rachael is actually the consumer and the NGB is the customer (Sinka, 2008). Sinka, 2008 comments a customer, is anyone or organisation that benefits from such a product or service and, importantly, the exchange process, is an organisation offers a product or service, and the customer offers a sum of money in return, (Oakley & Rhys, 2008). Before the exchange process is made there is a process of thought called the decision making process (a mind thought a customer processes before purchase, which is, problem recognition, information search, evaluation, decision and post-purchase evaluation). Sinka, 2008 comments on how economic theory, basis most decisions about buying, on price, arguing about the complex process of decision making. Harper-Smith & Derry, 2009 state of the importance a quality process, helping you come to the right decision , i.e. decision making process. However the NGB have already made that decision, hence us being the nutritional advisory, so the NGB must receive the right appropriate customer care and after care. Robinson, 2008 states that customer care has a set of rules (Oakley & Rhys, 2008). These rules numbered 1 to 5 are as follows:- 1) Give customers what they want. 2) Value staff. 3) Give good service every time. 4) Know how good the organisation is. 5) Feedback and complaints are a learning opportunity (Oakley & Rhys, 2008). Rules 1, 3, 4 and 5 apply to a sole nutritional advisor as no additional staff is employed. Good service encourages new users, whereas bad costs and it is only human to remember the latter more and can ruin an organisations reputation through word of mouth; the former being good practice for customer retention (loyalty). If all the above rules are followed religiously, the NGB will hopefully be satisfied with the service it receives from the nutritional advisory and good customer retention gained. Another idea for good steer towards customer retention and latter expectations is the marketing mix framework (basically customer needs wants and desires as in the seven C’s; see appendix B). Rhys, 2008, cites,( p194, Oakley & Rhys, 2008), “The idea of matching the expectations and needs of one party in the exchange process to the goods and services provided by the other is what marketing is all about”. Basically knowing your customer and continually seeing to their needs. The nutrition advisory will constantly seek to do this with the NGB adhering to the seven C’s (appendix B) and in constant contact and interaction with Rachael, her trainers and the NGB. Customer care rules, as Robinson, 2008 mentions all help in customer retention. Retention is the loyalty between customers, as individuals, and the organisation. The ultimate aim being to ‘keep the customer’, clearly exemplified as the lifetime value of the customer and Power, 2008, cites Stewart, 1996 (cited in Oakley & Rhys, 2008, p224) quoting it simply as “the value that a customer has to a business over the expected lifetime of the relationship, measured in terms of financial contribution.” Power, 2008 also exemplifies, in approaches to customer retention, of customer relationship management (CRM). An approach could be with the NGB as a partnership-based (based on services changing as customers’ life stages evolve), (Oakley & Rhys, 2008) always up dating the NGB on Rachael’s progress and continually working in relationship with her trainers and the NGB as well as Rachael herself, of course, a continuing developing professional relationship. Young and Oakley, 2008 comment on good management playing a major factor in achieving customer satisfaction and how main leadership roles, managers play, on developing genuine customer focus on continual improvements, by learning from past failures and closing quality gaps (a short fall in service). They also quote on the combination of managers commitment to customer orientated systems and ways of work and employees (nutritional advisory) who acknowledge their own crucial role in customer interaction (Oakley & Rhys, 2008). Cook, 2002, also argues of the importance in customer retention, of CRM (Cook, 2002) and keeping the customer satisfied and meeting their expectations and any that might change. However, as Power 2008 emphasises customers expectations change; he states as organisations improve a product, customers become accustomed to it and expect it as standard. Then they expect further changes and their expectations rise again, and the organisation responds again; and so on (Oakley & Rhys, 2008). Bruce & Langdon (2000), mention change being inevitable, so flexibility is vital, with the NGB and Rachael and her trainer. Parasuraman et al, 1991, (cited in Oakley and Rhys, 2008, p200), cite these changes as two levels of expectations, that are, adequate and desired; the first acceptable, the second, what they hope to receive. The distance between these two levels is known as the zone of tolerance. Any shortfalls in service, is known as a quality gaps (see appendix C) - when a customers expectations don’t meet what they receive. Zeithaml and Bitner, 1996 (cited in Oakley and Rhys, 2008, p 206) cite customer expectations being beliefs about service delivery that function as standards or reference points against which performance is judged. These quality gaps were recognised by Parasuraman et al (1991), and he also recognised customers had requirements; as follows:- • Ideal expectations • Should expectations • Previous experiences • Acceptable expectations • Minimum tolerable expectations So meeting any changing customer requirements of the NGB or changing expectations, will also contribute greatly to retention of the NGB to us, the nutritional advisory and also closing any quality gaps that may appear hoping to keep the NGB happy and continually keeping Rachael up to date with the progress of her nutritional diet affecting her training and ultimately competition times. Constant human interaction with her trainer, Tony and the NGB and seeking continuous feedback, should secure us a future as a nutritional advisory for their Olympic swimmers. SECTION 4: CONCLUSION In summary, Rachael is a disabled elite athlete, yet still an adolescent. The nutritional advisory hope to have met and addressed these issues working in partnership with her coach, Tony and the national governing body, and have given them the best advice available on optimum nutrition, for her current and future competition goals. As Rachael was the consumer and the NGB was the customer, the advisory hopes to have met and exceeded the expectations of the NGB and promise to update and further advise them of any future advancements in nutrition, regarding Rachael or any of their swimmers hoping to retain them and keep them happy, as a customer to us, the nutritional advisory. WORD COUNT: 3269 APPENDICIES Appendix A: BENEFITS OF PROSTAGLANDINS TO THE BODY (Herring, 2008) TYPE 1 & 2: • Keeps blood thin preventing clots and blockages. • Lowers blood pressure. • Helps maintain water balance in body. • Improves nerve and immune function. TYPE 3: • Essential for brain function, vision, learning, co-ordination and mood. • Controls fat and cholesterol levels. • Reduces inflammation. • Reduces stickiness of blood. Appendix B: (Oakley & Rhys, 2008, p 245) THE SEVEN C’s of MARKETING MIX. • Customer needs and wants. • Cost. • Convenience. • Communication. • Contact. • Context. • Conducting the process. Appendix C: (Oakley & Rhys, 2008, p208) QUALITY GAPS. GAP1: Between customers’ expectations and managers’ perceptions of customers’ expectations. GAP 2: Between managers’ perception of customers’ expectations and the product specification. GAP 3: Between the service ‘product’ and customers’ experience of it. GAP 4: Between customers’ experience and external communications to customers. GAP 5: Between customers’ expectations and customers’ experiences TABLES Table 1 [pic] Table Two: The Glycemic Index, Gallop, 2004. |Sugar |100 |Rice (basmati) |58 |Apple |38 | |Baguette |95 |Muffin (bran) |56 |Yoghurt (low fat) |33 | |Rice |87 |Potatoes (new/boiled) |56 |Fettuccine |32 | |Cornflakes |84 |Popcorn (light) |55 |Beans |31 | |Potatoes (baked) |84 |Orange |44 |Grapefruit |25 | |Doughnut |76 |All-Bran |43 |Yoghurt (fat-free with |14 | | | | | |sweetner) | | |Cheerios |75 |Oatmeal |42 | | | |Bagel |72 |Spaghetti |41 | | | |Rasins |64 |Tomato |38 | | | Table Three: MINERALS; Daily intake, Functions & Sources, Sharkey & Gaskill, 2007. |Materials |DRI (female/male) |Functions |Sources | |Calcium |1,000 mg |Bones, teeth, blood clotting, |Milk, tofu, broccoli, legumes | | | |muscle-nerve function | | |Chloride |2,300 mg |Digestion, fluid balance |Salt (in foods) | |Chromium |25/35 µg |Energy metabolism |Grains, meats, vegetable oils | |Copper |900 µg |Iron metabolism |Seafood, nuts, grains | |Fluorine |3/4 mg |Bones, teeth |Water, seafood, tea | |Iodine |150 µg |Thyroid hormone |Seafood, milk, iodized salt | |Iron |18/8 mg |Oxygen transport |Meats, legumes, dried fruit | |Magnesium |320/420 mg |Protein synthesis, |Grains, nuts, legumes, | | | |muscle-nerve function |seafood, chocolate | |Manganese |1.8/2.3 mg |Energy metabolism |Nuts, grains, tea, leafy | | | | |vegetables | |Molybdenum |45 µg |Enzymes |Organ meats, legumes, cereals | |Phosphorus |700 mg |Bones, teeth, acid-base |Milk, meats, poultry, fish, | | | |balance |eggs | |Potassium |4,700 mg |Nerve-muscle, fluid, and |Meats, milk, fruits, | | | |acid-base balance |vegetables, grains, coffee | |Selenium |55 µg |Antioxidant |Seafood, meats, grains | |Sodium |1,500 mg |Nerve function, fluid, and |Salt (in food) | | | |acid-base balance | | |Sulfur | |Liver function, hormones |Dietary protein | |Zinc |8/11 mg |Enzyme activity, wound healing|Meat, poultry, fish, milk, | | | | |grains, vegetables | REFERENCES Bean, A, 2006, 5th edition, sports Nutrition, A & C Black Publishers Ltd, 36 Soho Sq, London W1D 3QY. Bean, A, 2007, 3rd edition, Food for fitness, A & C Black Publishers Ltd, 36 Soho Sq, London W1D 3QY. Bruce, A & Langdon, K, 2000, Project Management, Dorling Kindersley ltd, Covent Garden, London WC2E 8PS. Gallup, R, 2004, the GI Diet, Virgin books, Thames Wharf Studios, Rainville rd, London W6 9HA. Harper-Smith, P & Derry, S, 2009, Project management, Pearson education Ltd, Harlow, CM20 2JE. Holford, P, 2008, Optimum Nutrition, Little Brown Book Group, 100Victoria Embankment, London EC4Y ODY Juba, K, 2001, Swimming for Fitness, A & C Black Publishers Ltd, 37 Soho Sq, London W1D 3QY. Karinch, MA, 2002, Diets Designed for Athletes, Human Kinetics, Units C2/C3, Wira Business Park, West Park Ring Rd, Leeds LS16 6EB. Martin, David, 1998, one stop customer care, ICSA publishing Ltd, Hertfordshire, HP2 7EZ. McArdle, WD, Katch, FI & Katch, VL, 2001, 5th Edition, Exercise Physiology, 351 West Camden St, Baltimore, Maryland, 21201-2436 USA. The Open University (2008) E112 Introduction to Sport fitness and management. DVD, Milton Keynes MK7 6AA. Donnely ,2008, and Heany, 2008, The Open University (2008) E112 Study Guide, Introduction to Sport, fitness and management. Milton Keynes MK7 6AA. Power, Sinka and Rhys, 2008 Oakley, B & Rhys, M, The Open University (2008) E112 Introduction to Sport and fitness sector., Milton Keynes MK7 6AA. Rinzler, C. A, 2004, Nutrition for Dummies, 3rd edition, Wiley Publishing Ltd, 111 River St, Hoboken, NJ 07030-5774, USA. Rooney, A, 2009, The Story of Medicine, Arcturus Publishing Ltd, 26/27 Bickels Yard, 151 Bermondsey St, London SE1 3HA Sharkey, B.J. & Gaskill, S.E. (2007) Fitness and Health, (6th edn), Leeds, Human Kinetics. Stear, S, Dr, 2004, Fuelling Fitness for Sports Performance, The Sugar Bureau, Duncan House, Dolphin sq, London SW1V 3PW, U.K. Ursell, A, 2001, Vitamins and minerals handbook, Dorling Kindersley ltd, Covent Garden, London WC2E 8PS. Webster-Gandy, Dr Joan, 2000, Food & Nutrition, Dorling Kindersley ltd, Covent Garden, London WC2E 8PS. Wicebloom, S, 2007, Training Disabled people, A & C Black Publishers Ltd, 38 Soho Sq, London W1D 3QY.