Early_Childhood_Development

Early Childhood Development (Age Group 5-6 year old) The early childhood development phase is the phase in which children develop in a broad spectrum. The developmental stages range from physical to emotional changes up to intellectual changes. During this phase, children become more active and generally busy. Different physical and biological developments start taking place and are easily recognizable when analysing there fine and gross motor skills during play and structured activities. Physical and Intellectual attributes such as weight, height and brain development starts developing and play an important role in this stage of the child’s developmental progress. Therefore it is important to pay close attention to the way in which children develop during this phase and to find means of implementing and encouraging ways of learning in order to have a successful outcome when viewing the developmental levels of this phase. (LOUW, D and Louw, A, 2010) Cognitive Development (Bridget Cummins Student No: 10251767) The cognitive development of the young child refers to aspects and functions relating to thinking and ideas, that is, all aspects of his perceptual faculty. The study of cognitive development includes motor, perceptual, memory and linguistic development of intelligence (de Witt, M., 2009, p. 5-6). Jean Piaget regarded human cognitive functioning as a way of interacting with the environment, which is an important means of ensuring survival. He did not however hold the view that intellectual development is solely the result of biological maturation. He maintained that although the maturation of the nervous system determines the totality of possibilities and impossibilities, a particular social environment remains indispensable for the realisation of these possibilities, and stated that their realisation can be accelerated or regarded as a function of cultural and educational conditions influencing the process. Although Piaget believed in the child’s own, active participation in his discovery of the world, he emphasised the role of the adults’ educative assistance, support and accompaniment in the cognitive development of the preschool child (de Witt, M., 2009 p. 13). According to de Witt (2009, p. 13-14) functions that are important in the cognitive development of the young child include: Intelligence This develops through the individual’s interaction with the environment and plays an important role in survival. It deals not only with the ability to adapt what he/she knows to the constantly changing environment, but with aspects relating to multiple intelligences for example: Musical intelligence Bodily kinaesthetic intelligence Linguistic intelligenceNaturalist intelligence | Spatial intelligence Interpersonal intelligenceIntrapersonal intelligence | Schemes And Cognitive Structure According to Meyer and Van Ede in de Witt (2009, p. 14) a schema is defined as a pattern that underlies a class of similar behaviours, which includes a tendency to initiate behaviour of the particular class in appropriate situations, for example, the reflex tendency to suck everything which the mouth comes into contact with. Cognitive structure may be thought of as a large and intricately linked series of associations among words, concepts, and whatever other mental entities there might be. Frank Smith uses the term "the theory of the world in the head" to refer to cognitive structure (Accessed from Course 3070 Cognitive Structure). According to Piagetian theory we all try to make sense of what we encounter according to our “scripts” or existing schemes through a process called adaptation which is carried out through two processes called assimilation and accommodation. Assimilation and Accommodation Assimilation means that the child understands new content on the basis of his existing schemes, while accommodation refers to the modification of actions to adapt to new similar stimuli (de Witt, M., 2009, p. 14). Equilibrium Piaget referred to equilibrium as the state where the environment is such that the individual’s existing knowledge and cognitive structures are sufficient to cope with it, and that children are constantly trying to maintain a balance between assimilation and accommodation i.e. between understanding the new elements in the environment and present knowledge by adapting their own thinking and modifying their behaviour accordingly (de Witt, M., 2009, p. 14). Metacognition Metacognition deals with self-regulation (Eloff & Ebersohn, 2004, p. 22), the conscious attempts by the child to control his own cognition abilities (de Witt, M., 2009, p. 14) and forms part of information-processing theory – where theorists draw heavily on the functioning of computers to explain thinking and how it develops through childhood to adolescence (Louw, D. & Louw, A., 2007, p. 25). Metacognition can be developed by making the child aware of what he thinks, and how he thinks about what he thinks. By exposing preschool children to situations in which they can acquire knowledge about how they learn, their metacognition abilities develop further (de Witt, M., 2009, p. 56). Children are between 2 and 6 years of age, early childhood, are classified according to Piaget’s four stages of cognitive development as being in the stage of preoperational thought. The Characteristics of this Phase are: * Children start to use language and symbols (e.g. pictures and words) to represent ideas and objects and are skilled in representation which is obvious in their deferred imitation, symbolic play and spoken language (Louw, D and Louw, A., 2007, p. 158-159). * Animism (All lifeless objects also have feelings and thoughts) * Think egocentrically (are unable to see the world from other people’s point of view) * They have perceptual centration, perceiving and reasoning about one dimension of a situation at a time and therefore do not understand conservation and are yet incapable of irreversibility (Louw and Louw, 2007, p. 155-156). * Their reasoning is transductive in nature. According to Botha et al. in de Witt, (2009, p. 56) preschool children remember visual information better that auditory information. This implies that if preschool children are required to remember information, it is better to present it either visually or audio-visually. And has to do with the fact that due to preoperational thought, their problem-solving is mainly tied to concrete events and objects as opposed to abstract concepts (Schaffer, H. R., 2004, p.168) – perception-bound thinking (Louw, D. and Louw, A., 2007, p. 158) - and why it is important that the teaching/learning environment is equipped with not only 2D, but 3D age-appropriate materials, and that the experience of learning still takes place through their body movement and senses. And explains why the use of realia supports the child’s development of understanding of concepts, tying what they learn up with their life world. How Can Children’s Cognitive Development Be Enhanced' (Louw, D. & Louw, A., 2007 p. 168) Exposing children to new and interesting situations: This brings about disequilibrium in children, which is in line with Piaget’s theory that suggests that such imbalance will force them to change their cognitive structures. Interacting with other children: This enhances their awareness of how others perceive and experience situations differently. This is also related to Piaget’s theory of disequilibrium as it stimulates curiosity, questions and in turn cognitive growth, with particular focus on their egocentricity. Play Play provides opportunities for exploration, and the establishment of new realities. Play may be regarded as the child’s work and the cornerstone of learning (de Witt, M., 2009, p. 61). Play also provides the opportunity to exercise newly acquired skills e.g. drawing and writing skills and discovery of new methods of using objects. This is in line with the Piagetian view that the child is a young scientist or a naïve theorist (Louw, D. & Louw, A., 2007 p. 168), who is actively exploring and investigating his world, trying to make sense of it by experimenting, attempting to fit that experience into existing ways of understanding and, if this is not possible, extending these or creating new ones (Schaffer, H.R., 2004, p. 191). The fact that they are engaged in animistic thinking may support the reason that the use of teaching aids such as puppets and facemasks engage their attention and facilitate learning. Practising Cognitive Skills Repetition of Learning Situations Provides opportunity for practise and inculcation (memorising), which is vital to the child’s spontaneous learning intention, as memorisation is a prerequisite for adequate recall. This experiential knowledge is essential for the integration of new experiences (de Witt, M., 2009, p. 58). Transmission of Knowledge Storytelling (stories that are read, related of told in oral tradition) This is especially effective as stories appeal to our imaginative nature and ability to fantasize (Horsley, K., 2004) Imagining and imitating plays an important role in childlike learning as it is an integral part of children’s play (Matlin in de Witt, M., 2009, p. 58) which ties up with their animistic thinking. Exposing them to new Information and Situations: Visits, television and internet and fostering a questioning attitude, which is in line Vygotsky’s concept of guided learning within his theory of socio-cultural cognitive development, where (Louw, D. and Louw, A., 2007, p. 165) the participation of an adult in a child’s activity helps to give it structure in order to bring the child’s understanding closer to that of the adult. Pre-primary Schools and Programmes: * Here Vygotsky’s Sociocultural theory often comes into play, as activities are structured in the zone of proximal development and an adult(s) play and active role in scaffolding i.e. Where activities provide the learner with a challenge that is just beyond the child’s current competence as well as just enough assistance/support (through explanation, instruction – the socio-cultural tools of Language – and/or demonstration) to enable them to accomplish the task independently, hereby stimulating the child to reach a new level. (Louw, D. and Louw, A., 2007, p. 168) * Children’s social and emotional developments are also enhanced as they learn to interact with others and regulate their emotions. (Louw, D. and Louw, A., 2007, p. 168) * Such programmes also provide opportunities for the improvement of memory strategies that concern Metamemory, not only through repetition of activities strengthen recall, which is poorer than recognition in young children, but educational toys and materials e.g. educational puzzle word games that teach the young learners to form associations between words such house and mouse, and word cards for different languages on different colour boards that enable the learner to associate words belonging to the same language with the same colour, which form part of memory techniques. Children can also learn to use creative narrative (please see ‘Transmission of knowledge’ above for substantiation)/the art of mnemonics as a means of enhancing memory, as well as the skill of mind-mapping with basic drawings. Personality Development (Kendal Klopper Student No: 10007343) Theories of Personality Development Freud’s Psychodynamic Perspective Personality refers to the unique and relatively consistent way in which an individual feels, thinks and behaves. Most researchers categorise personality in five main traits, often referred to as “The Big Five”, these include: * Extraversion * Agreeableness * Conscientiousness * Neuroticism or emotional instability * Openness or intellect (D, Louw and A, Louw, 2010) Sigmund Freud created the first psychodynamic theory, called psychoanalysis, which holds that development is largely determined by how well people resolve the unconscious conflicts that they face at different ages. (D, Louw and A, Louw, 2010) As part of his theory, Freud argued that personality includes three primary components that emerge at distinctive ages: 1. The Id – this is the original system of the personality that contains all the biological aspects and functions on the pleasure principle, that is, the search for immediate need gratification, regardless of moral consequences. (I, Eloff and L, Ebersohn, 2004) 2. The Ego – this is responsible for reality testing. The reality principle guides the ego. The environment sets certain demands and a person has to adjust her behaviour to meet these demands. (I, Eloff and L, Ebersohn, 2004) 3. The Superego – this is the internal representative of traditional ideals and values and views of society, which are strengthened by factors such as punishment and reward. The Superego is composed of both the conscience (which facilitates feelings of guilt about ‘wrong’ or immoral/unethical behaviour) and the ego ideal (which rewards morally ‘correct’ behaviour with feelings of pride). (I, Eloff and L, Ebersohn, 2004) Freud states that the personality develops in conjunction with the Libido (sexual urges), which pushes a person through the different phases, as follows: The Oral Phase This phase is referred to as the period from birth to 1 year and characterised by the need for food. (I, Eloff and L, Ebersohn, 2004) Sexual energy is centred around the mouth and babies derive oral gratification from sucking. (D, Louw and A, Louw, 2010) The Anal Phase This phase is referred to as the period from 1 to 3 years and is characterised by a focus on the need to excrete. (I, Eloff and L, Ebersohn, 2004) Sexual energy centres on the anal area, especially regarding the control of elimination functions. (D, Louw and A, Louw, 2010) The Phallic Phase This phase is referred to as the period from 3 to 6 years and is characterised by a focus on sexual and aggressive feelings that pertain to the functioning of sexual organs. Freud believes that, during this phase, the young boy falls in love with his mother (the Oedipus complex) and dreads that his father might castrate him for this, while the young girl falls in love with her father (the Electra complex). (I, Eloff and L, Ebersohn, 2004) The Latent Phase This phase is referred to as the period from 6 to 11 years and is characterised by a decrease in importance of sexual motivations and drives while the child develops skills and participates in a diverse range of activities of a non-sexual nature. It is supposed to be a relatively calm phase. (I, Eloff and L, Ebersohn, 2004) Energy is channelled in school and social activities. (D, Louw and A, Louw, 2010) The Genital Phase This phase is referred to as the period of adolescence and is characterised by a focus on the need for sexual fulfilment in conjunction with another person. (I, Eloff and L, Ebersohn, 2004) Puberty causes the sexual impulses to reappear. Adolescents have to learn to express these urges in a socially acceptable manner. (D, Louw and A, Louw, 2010) Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial Development Erik Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development is one of the best-known theories of personality in psychology. Much like Sigmund Freud, Erikson believed that personality develops in a series of stages. (K, Cherry) There are 8 stages in Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development, for the purpose of personality we will only make reference to two of the eight stages that relate to the Early Childhood phase of development. Invalid source specified. Psychosocial Stage 2 – Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt This refers to the stage between 1 year and 3 years of age, when the child realises that he/she is an independent person who can make their own decisions. (D, Louw and A, Louw, 2010) Psychosocial Stage 3 – Initiative vs. Guilt This refers to the stage between 3 and 6 years of age, when the child develops a willingness to try new things and to handle failure. (D, Louw and A, Louw, 2010) Emotions Children’s heightened cognitive and social development contributes toward changes in their emotional experiences. Basic emotions such as joy and sadness that appeared in infancy become varied. Self-development contributes to development of self-conscious emotions such as guilt, shame and pride. Children become increasingly aware of their own as well as others’ emotions. (D, Louw and A, Louw, 2010) There are four basic emotions in Early Childhood, namely, Happiness, Fear and Anxiety and Anger. By the second year of the child’s life, they begin to show emotions that reflect a more complex understanding of the self and social relationships. Self-conscious emotions are feelings that involve injury or enhancement of their sense of self, such as embarrassment, shame, guilt, envy and pride, develop as children’s self-concepts become better defined. (D, Louw and A, Louw, 2010) At the age of two, self-conscious emotions become linked to self-evaluation. Children can now evaluate their own thoughts, plans, desires and behaviour against what is considered socially acceptable. (D, Louw and A, Louw, 2010) The Self-Concept The self-concept is a self-theory and is a person’s view and evaluation of himself. It includes cognitive, emotional and evaluative elements. This means that the person not only has “knowledge” of his traits but also feelings about, and evaluations of, himself and his traits. The self-concept therefore includes aspects such as self-image, self-esteem and self-acceptance. (M, De Witt, 2009) The young child forms different relationships with himself, other people and objects. Each of these relationships influences his acquisition of an own identity. The child’s relationship with himself is called his self-concept. It is constructed out of his beliefs about himself and is influenced by his previous experiences. Because of what he learns from his experience with others, he experiences himself as being attractive or unattractive, bright or stupid, and so on. (M, De Witt, 2009) Self-Esteem Self-esteem refers to the relatively consistent positive feelings a person has about himself. It is the person’s sense of personal worth and judgements by others about the self. Such a person is generally satisfied with his physical, psychological and social characteristics and develops as a reflection of personal experiences. The following are Components of Self-Esteem: * Sense of own identity * Sense of belonging * Sense of uniqueness * Sense of self (M, De Witt, 2009) As the young child grows and develops he not only gathers information about the self but also starts evaluating this information. Through the social relationships the child forms he can compare the self with peers and with the picture he has of the ideal self he would like to be. (M, De Witt, 2009) From an early age, the child is exposed to different forms of acceptance (e.g. signs of love and approval) and rejection (e.g. withdrawal of love and approval) by parents and others. When the child needs to be disciplined it is vital that the parents should still accept the child as someone of value, even though they may disapprove of their actions. This way the child develops positive feelings about his own value and learns that he is accepted as a person unconditionally. (M, De Witt, 2009) Social Development (Allyssa da Silveira Student No: 10577522) Social Development Theory argues that social interaction precedes development; consciousness and cognition is the end product of socialization and social behaviour. Major themes: * Social interaction plays a fundamental role in the process of cognitive development. In contrast to Jean Piaget’s understanding of child development (in which development necessarily precedes learning), Vygotsky felt social learning precedes development. He states: “Every function in the child’s cultural development appears twice: first, on the social level, and later, on the individual level; first, between people (inter-psychological) and then inside the child (intra-psychological).” (Vygotsky, 1978). * The More Knowledgeable Other (MKO). The MKO refers to anyone who has a better understanding or a higher ability level than the learner, with respect to a particular task, process, or concept. The MKO is normally thought of as being a teacher, coach, or older adult, but the MKO could also be peers, a younger person, or even computers. * The Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD). The ZPD is the distance between a student’s ability to perform a task under adult guidance and/or with peer collaboration and the student’s ability solving the problem independently. According to Vygotsky, learning occurred in this zone. Moral Development Moral development is the process through which children develop proper attitudes and behaviours toward other people in society, based on social and cultural norms, rules, and laws. Moral development is a concern for every parent. Teaching a child to distinguish right from wrong and to behave accordingly is a goal of parenting. Moral development is a complex issue that—since the beginning of human civilization—has been a topic of discussion among some of the world's most distinguished psychologists, theologians, and culture theorists. It was not studied scientifically until the late 1950s. Erikson's Eight Stages of Development Learning Basic Trust versus Basic Mistrust (Hope) Chronologically, this is the period of infancy through the first one or two years of life. The child, well - handled, nurtured, and loved, develops trust and security and a basic optimism. Badly handled, he becomes insecure and mistrustful. (K, Cherry) Learning Autonomy versus Shame (Will) The second psychosocial crisis, Erikson believes, occurs during early childhood, probably between about 18 months or 2 years and 3½ to 4 years of age. The "well - parented" child emerges from this stage sure of himself, elated with his new found control, and proud rather than ashamed. Autonomy is not, however, entirely synonymous with assured self - possession, initiative, and independence but, at least for children in the early part of this psychosocial crisis, includes stormy self - will, tantrums, stubbornness, and negativism. For example, one sees may 2 year olds resolutely folding their arms to prevent their mothers from holding their hands as they cross the street. Also, the sound of "NO" rings through the house or the grocery store. (K, Cherry) Learning Initiative versus Guilt (Purpose) Erikson believes that this third psychosocial crisis occurs during what he calls the "play age," or the later preschool years (from about 3½ to, in the United States culture, entry into formal school). During it, the healthily developing child learns: (1) to imagine, to broaden his skills through active play of all sorts, including fantasy (2) to cooperate with others (3) to lead as well as to follow. Immobilized by guilt, he is: (1) fearful (2) hangs on the fringes of groups (3) continues to depend unduly on adults and (4) is restricted both in the development of play skills and in imagination (K, Cherry) Industry versus Inferiority (Competence) Erikson believes that the fourth psychosocial crisis is handled, for better or worse, during what he calls the "school age," presumably up to and possibly including some of junior high school. Here the child learns to master the more formal skills of life: (1) relating with peers according to rules (2) progressing from free play to play that may be elaborately structured by rules and may demand formal teamwork, such as baseball and (3) mastering social studies, reading, arithmetic. Homework is a necessity, and the need for self-discipline increases yearly. (K, Cherry) The child who, because of his successive and successful resolutions of earlier psychosocial crisis, is trusting, autonomous, and full of initiative will learn easily enough to be industrious. However, the mistrusting child will doubt the future. The shame - and guilt-filled child will experience defeat and inferiority. (K, Cherry) Learning Identity versus Identity Diffusion (Fidelity) Erikson believes that during successful early adolescence, mature time perspective is developed; the young person acquires self-certainty as opposed to self-consciousness and self-doubt. He comes to experiment with different - usually constructive - roles rather than adopting a "negative identity" (such as delinquency). He actually anticipates achievement, and achieves, rather than being "paralyzed" by feelings of inferiority or by an inadequate time perspective. In later adolescence, clear sexual identity - manhood or womanhood - is established. The adolescent seeks leadership (someone to inspire him), and gradually develops a set of ideals (socially congruent and desirable, in the case of the successful adolescent). Erikson believes that, in our culture, adolescence affords a "psychosocial moratorium," particularly for middle - and upper-class American children. They do not yet have to "play for keeps," but can experiment, trying various roles, and thus hopefully find the one most suitable for them. (K, Cherry) Learning Intimacy versus Isolation (Love) The successful young adult, for the first time, can experience true intimacy - the sort of intimacy that makes possible good marriage or a genuine and enduring friendship. (K, Cherry) Learning Generativity versus Self-Absorption (Care) In adulthood, the psychosocial crisis demands generativity, both in the sense of marriage and parenthood, and in the sense of working productively and creatively. (K, Cherry) Integrity versus Despair (Wisdom) If the other seven psychosocial crisis have been successfully resolved, the mature adult develops the peak of adjustment; integrity. He trusts, he is independent and dares the new. He works hard, has found a well - defined role in life, and has developed a self-concept with which he is happy. He can be intimate without strain, guilt, regret, or lack of realism; and he is proud of what he creates - his children, his work, or his hobbies. If one or more of the earlier psychosocial crises have not been resolved, he may view himself and his life with disgust and despair. (K, Cherry) Language Development (H. Murgatroyd Student No: 10594044) What is Language' Language is a system of symbols that enables people to communicate effectively. (DE WITT, Marike W, 2009) Language Development The use of language is the most natural function of the human spirit and it is the biggest accomplishment of the human species. Humans are born with the ability to use and speak language, although it is genetically available and all humans have the capacity it has to be learnt and acquired. A child’s ability to imitate language patterns and rhythms and the meaning of language is primarily due to innate tendencies. Everything children learn is dependent on their knowledge and control of language. This has a direct impact on formal learning structures like reading, writing, listening and viewing. (DE WITT, Marike W, 2009) Language Development and Theorists Theorists don’t all agree on how children learn language. There are those who believe that language is acquired in a passive way, others believe that children construct their own meaning. Some theorists believe that society and culture/environment play a vital role in language acquisition. There are also those who believe that all children learn language naturally. (LOUW, D and Louw, A, 2010) Piaget’s Cognitive Developmental Theory (Cognition) Piaget believed that language is directly related to cognitive development. Meaning that the child’s level of thinking will determine when the child will learn to speak. Piaget believed that language/speaking comes naturally to the child. He was of the opinion that this happens automatically whenever the child is ready and deliberate teaching by adults is not required. (Northallerton College, 2010) Piaget classified four stages of cognitive development. During early childhood the most important of these stages in language development is the pre-operational stage (age 2-6) during which time a child starts to use language and symbols to represent ideas and objects, this is done through the use of pictures and words. (LOUW, D and Louw, A, 2010) Skinner ‘s Social Cognitive Theory Skinner believed that a child learns to speak through imitating, modelling or observational learning from adults. He was of the opinion that to help a child the adult should repeat and correct the child’s use of language. (LOUW, D and Louw, A, 2010) Vygotsky’s Contextual Perspective Vygotsky said that cognitive development is a social process and that human behaviour is moulded by social organisation. He believed that social experience played a role in children’s development. He said language is a primary experience whereby knowledge is passed on. Language is a tool for thought, when language is internalised it changes into thought. Language is a principal tool for cognitive functioning. (SCHAFFER H.R., 2004) Noam Chomsky’s Nativist Position The Nativists believe that the only factor required for language acquisition is the presence of language. Chomsky maintained that the brain contains a Language Acquisition Device (LAD). This device enables the child to sort through the language they hear every day and allows them to discover grammar rules. He believed that LAD helps to determine the sequence of language development. (LOUW, D and Louw, A, 2010) Language Related Skills During early childhood the young child’s understanding of the spoken and written word improves remarkably. * Relating sounds with their respective meaning. * Associating ideas for the concepts they are intended for. * Mastering language rules to combine words to form understandable communication. (DE WITT, Marike W, 2009) Factors Influencing the Language Acquisition * Gender of the child * Bilingualism * Socio-Economic Status (SES) * Media (LOUW, D and Louw, A, 2010) Facilitation of Language Acquisition of Children In the foundation Phase program ample time is spent on language development. Language and literacy are compulsory for any learner in a formal education system. (DE WITT, Marike W, 2009) * Speak to a child as often as possible. * Listen to a child and make him feel as if his view is important. * Speak slowly so that the child can follow what you are saying. * Repeat complicated words often. * Create opportunities for a child to speak or communicate. * Listen when a child is speaking. * Encourage dialogue by asking questions and allowing the child to speak. * When asking a question encourage the child to answer using full sentences. * Read stories often. * Ask the child to name pictures in books, magazines and newspaper. * Rephrase the child words in a different way. * Correct what the child says and expand on the topic. (LOUW, D and Louw, A, 2010) A child needs vocabulary, grammar and speaking experience, these are important aspects of language acquisition. There is a connection between listening, speaking, reading and writing abilities. It is also widely believed that when children understand they often only remember what they have talked about. If a child has problems with oral expression, often they are not ready to begin reading and writing. (DUFF, J, 1993) Factors that Influence Language Development 1. Environment 2. Educational situation 3. Educative methods 4. Socio-economic status 5. Parental Model 6. Accompaniment | 7. Experience 8. Physical Factors 9. Psychological Readiness 10. Maturation 11. Intelligence 12. Motivation | 13. Gender 14. Family size 15. Birth Order 16. Multiple Births 17. Contact with children 18. Personality | Components of Language Language consists of many components, like listening, speaking, communicating, reading and writing. (DUFF, J, 1993) Basic Language Skills the Child must Acquire Listening Language * Auditory perception * Understand words with concrete and abstract meaning. * Understand the structure of sentences. * Must be able to carry out verbal instruction. * Eventually listen critically and make judgements. (DE WITT, Marike W, 2009) Listening is more than just hearing. It is the ability to hear and interpret the spoken word. Listening is the first language skills that a human acquires. It is the basis for all learning. Listening is different from hearing. Listening is an active process that involves thinking and reasoning. Listening is a cognitive process. Hearing is an activity of the ear. Listening activities prepares the child for both reading and writing. Listening is essential to language acquisition. (DAVIN, R and van Staden, C, 2005) Manifestations of Auditory Receptive language Problems - Listening Language 1. Child cannot identify a sound. 2. Child cannot distinguish between 2 sounds. 3. Child cannot synthesise sound. 4. Child can’t distinguish morphologically. 5. Unable to pick out an object named from a group. 6. Has trouble distinguishing between 2 sentences in which word order differs. | 7. Pronouns refer to more than 1 object. 8. A word with more than one meaning. 9. Homophones. 10. Literal and figurative meanings. 11. Confuses questions and instructions. 12. Confuses verbs like ask and tell. 13. Has problems answering questions.(DE WITT, Marike W, 2009) | Spoken Language The Child must learn to: * Retain the meaning of words. * Produce speech sounds. * Formulate words and sentences. * Develop correct grammatical and syntactic patterns. * Develop an adequate vocabulary. (M, De Witt, 2009) Speaking is an integral part of a child’s social and personal development. It provides them with an opportunity to put their ideas into words and develop an understanding of the world around them. (DUFF, J, 1993) The ability to use words and to also understand their meaning opens up a whole new world to the child. (LOUW, D and Louw, A, 2010) Manifestations of Auditory Receptive language Problems - Spoken Language 1. Family uses baby language. 2. Child substitute words that can’t be found. 3. Can’t repeat words correctly. 4. Voice is loud and shrill. 5. Can’t use words correctly in context or sentences. | 6. Avoids the use of adjectives. 7. Omits sounds from a word. 8. A poor concept of time is demonstrated. 9. Has an inadequate understanding of space and locality.(DE WITT, Marike W, 2009) | Language and speech is closely related. Language is a general term used for speech and symbols. Speech is the medium used to express language in words. Both reflect the inborn need for human beings to communicate. (DE WITT, Marike W, 2009) The Early Childhood Phase exists from the age of 2 until the age of 6. Through this phase the child’s physical development starts to slow down and the body starts forming more proportionally. Brain development takes place, its size increases and the brain plays a major role in language Louw development, skills involving organising, balance, motor control, alertness and consciousness. (LOUW, D and Louw, A, 2010, pp.210-211) There are many theories surrounding the issue of development. It has become obvious that development, though seen in different perspectives through different theorists such as Vygotsky and Skinner is a fundamental stage and that it links to all the other important developmental factors that play an essential part in that of Early Childhood Development and should always be referred to and considered especially when designing a program that aims to enhance development. (LOUW, D and Louw, A, 2010, pp.210-211) Intext referencing Louw, D. and Louw, A. 2010. Chapter 1 - Basic Concepts of Child and Adolescent Development. In: Child and Adolescent Development, Free State: Psychology Publications, pp.1-43. Louw, D. and Louw, A. 2010. Chapter 3 - The Neonatal Phase and Infancy. In: Child and Adolescent Development, Free State: Psychology Publications, p.114. Louw, D. and Louw, A. 2010. Chapter 4 - Early Childhood. In: Child and Adolescent Development, Free State: Psychology Publications, pp.148-211. Eloff, I., and Ebersohn, L. 2004. Chapter 21 - Theoretical Approaches in Psychology. In: Danya RISTIC, (ed). Keys to Educational Psychology, Lansdowne,Cape Town: UCT Press, pp.388-411. Davin, R. and Van Staden, C. 2005. The Reception Year Learning through Play. Johannesburg: Heinemann Publishers. de Witt, M. 2009. The Young Child in Context. Pretoria: Van Schaik. Duff, J. 1993. Aspects of Junior Primary Teaching. Isando: Lexicon Publishers. Eloff, I. and Ebersohn, L. 2004. 'Theoretical Approaches in Psychology'. In: Danya RISTIC, (ed). Keys to Educational Psychology, Lansdowne,Cape Town: UCT Press. Louw, D. and Louw, A. 2010. Child and Adolescent Development. Bloemfontein: Psychology Publications. De Witt, M. 2009. Chapter 8 - 'The young child's acquisition of an identity'. In: Venter, D. (ed). The Young Child in Context - A thematic approach. Pretoria: Van Schaik Publishers, pp.119-128. Northallerton College. 2010. [online]. [Accessed 24 Aug 2010]. Available from World Wide Web: Louw, D. and Louw, A. 2010. Chapter 1 - Basic Concepts of Child and Adolescent Development. In: Child and Adolescent Development, Free State: Psychology Publications, pp.1-43. Louw, D. and Louw, A. 2010. Chapter 3 - The Neonatal Phase and Infancy. In: Child and Adolescent Development, Free State: Psychology Publications, p.114. Louw,. D and Louw, A. 2010. Chapter 4 - Early Childhood. In: Child and Adolescent Development, Free State: Psychology Publications, pp.148-211. Eloff, I. and Ebersohn, L. 2004. Chapter 21 - Theoretical Approaches in Psychology. In: Ristic, D. (ed). Keys to Educational Psychology, Lansdowne,Cape Town: UCT Press, pp.388-411. Cherry, K. Erikson's Psychosocial Stages - Young Adulthood, Middle Age, and Old Age. S.a. [Online]. Available: Accessed: 2010-08-24. Schaffer, H.R. 2004. Introducing Child Psychology. Oxford: Blakwell Publishing. Bibliography Allen, E. and Marotz, L. 1999. Developmental Profiles: Pre-birth through to Eight. Albany: Delmar Allyson, J. (2002-2006) Bowler, R. & Linke, P. 1998. Your Child from One to Ten (2nd Edition). Melbourne: ACER Cherry, K. Erikson's Psychosocial Stages - Young Adulthood, Middle Age, and Old Age. S.a. [Online]. Available: Accessed: 2010-08-24. Course 3070 Cognitive Structure. S.a. [Online]. Accessed: 2010-08-25 Davin, R. and Van Staden, C. 2005. The Reception Year Learning through Play. Johannesburg: Heinemann Publishers. de Witt, M. 2009. The Young Child in Context- A thematic approach. Pretoria: Van Schaik Publishers. Duff, J. 1993. Aspects of Junior Primary Teaching. 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