Dtlls_Unit_4_Assignment_1

Unit 4: Theories and principles for planning and enabling learning 1. Identify and discuss the significance of relevant theories and principles of learning and communication. Teacher-learner relationship Unit 3 underlines the fact that all learners are different and have different needs. Identifying those needs informs the planning process by applying learning theories and principles appropriate to a group of learners and ultimately the individual learner through ILP. The most basic form of teaching (in view of the principles below) is the idea of the teacher being active and the learner being passive (the ‘banking’ concept of education Freire (1972)) where the teacher acts as a ‘dispenser’ of learning while the learners do nothing but listen. This learning model confines the effects of the learning process to the learner, and the teacher remains unchanged by the process. Freire would prefer both parties to be involved in the process. The idea of ‘teacher’ could be replaced with the term ‘facilitator of learning’ as Rogers (1983) suggests. Rogers lists all relevant teaching skills and says that the initiation of learning doesn’t rest upon those. ‘No. the facilitation of significant learning rests upon certain attitudinal qualities which exist in the personal relationship between the facilitator and the learner’ (Rogers, 1983, p121) The rise of competence based models of education has contributed to resurgence in the ‘delivery’ or ‘banking’ style of teaching, mirroring the view of education being designed to meet the needs of employees and the economy. This instrumentalist view is backed up by the Foster Report (2005). In my opinion music is great a means to engage learners and to initiate and enable learning and development and is a good common ground for musicians to form relationships upon. The other ingredients are the theories and principles below. You will notice that learner needs are at the centre of the more humane theories, not the curriculum. Behaviourism (Pavlov, Watson): The most well known name with regard to behaviourism is Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936) who trained dogs to salivate when they heard a bell ring. The bell was sounded out just before the dogs were fed and the dogs were observed – after a period of training– to be salivating at the sound of the bell alone. This demonstrates a basic behavioural response to stimuli. ‘The behaviourist mantra is sometimes represented thus: S-R (Stimulus-Response).’ (Wallace, S, p97) Behaviourism (particularly this kind of behaviourism) is to teaching and learning as Thomas Hobbes’ idea of a ‘state of nature’ is to the world of political philosophy. Perhaps one step up. John Watson (1878-1958) took Pavlov’s idea further by applying it to human behaviour. In 1913 Watson published the article “Psychology As The Behaviourist Views It” in which he states that ‘psychology as the behaviourist views it is a purely objective experimental branch of natural science’ Watson (1913). Another quote from Watson implies superiority with regard to training. ‘Give me a dozen healthy infants, well-formed, and my own specified world to bring them up in and I'll guarantee to take any one at random and train him to become any type of specialist I might select – doctor, lawyer, artist, merchant-chief and, yes, even beggar-man and thief, regardless of his talents, penchants, tendencies, abilities, vocations, and race of his ancestors. I am going beyond my facts and I admit it, but so have the advocates of the contrary and they have been doing it for many thousands of years.’ [Behaviorism (1930), p. 82] This quote also implies complete disregard for learner autonomy and humanism. ‘The idea that human psychology or motivation could be viewed as a series of behaviours based on stimulus and response may seem to us now a rather reductive and mechanistic view, and one which it would be difficult to apply to the practices of teaching and learning in any humane way’ (Wallace p97) Watson himself admitted he “did not know enough” and later regretted writing in the field of teaching and learning. To bridge the gap between behaviourism and cognitivism/humanism we need to look at neo-behaviourism. Neo-Behaviourism (Gagné, Skinner) The new behaviourists (the best known of whom being Skinner (1904-1990)) took the concept a step further by introducing a level of learner autonomy or learner needs and wants. 'Tolman, Skinner and Gagné are, perhaps, the best known neo-behaviourists. They provided a more human perspective in that they considered the human mind to be selective in its actions and not simply responsive to stimuli.' (Curzon p.83) Neo-behaviourism introduced the idea that a learner will have a reason, or goal, for acquiring the skills and knowledge, that the learning wasn’t an end in itself but a means to an end, specific to the learner. ‘we can both remember past experiences (in a more conscious way than on a mechanistic S-R level), and we can imagine a future, even one which goes beyond our own lifespan’ (Wallace p97) Neo-behaviourists also introduced reinforcement and behaviour modification. In simple terms this means rewarding someone for desired behaviour (positive reinforcement) so they will repeat that behaviour in the future, and discouraging undesired behaviour by means of negative reinforcement – ignoring the undesired behaviour for example. This reward system implies that we are motivated to learn by reward and relies on humans preferring reward over pain (even if the reward is to avoid pain). If a learner in a class room gives an answer (correct or incorrect) the learner should be praised (rewarded) for trying, so they may try again later without fear of ridicule (pain). This is positive reinforcement in use in the class room. The desired learner behaviour will be modified through reward. Another example could be a learner who shouts out all the answers all the time. Ignoring this learner (pain) could be seen as harsh but it’s more desirable than to continue rewarding their behaviour with your attention at the cost of the other learners’ engagement, or to tell the over enthusiastic learner to stop talking. ‘At the same time the teacher could give enthusiastic praise to any other learner who spoke up. This reward would encourage them to repeat this behaviour, and draw them into taking a more active part in lesson’ (Wallace p102) Skinners’ research also led him to identify that intermittent reinforcement contributes to longer retention of what is learned (that learning should happen incrementally with positive reinforcement offered at every step to achieve depth of understanding) and that lack of acknowledgement will cause learners to modify their behaviour until some kind of reinforcement takes place. [pic] In this model we can see that the antecedents refer to the learner’s past experience which enforces their probable behaviour. The consequences of their behaviour (reward or pain) feed into their past experience to enforce probable future behaviour. As a result of this ‘operant conditioning’ model, learners will learn by forming a cognitive map of behaviour and consequence. The main disadvantages to this model are: 1. Built upon lab experiments with animals. 2. Mechanistic. 3. Teachers cannot give constant reinforcement to all learners all the time. 4. Teachers don’t have control over the most powerful reinforcers to modify learner behaviour. 5. Negative reinforcement can have an unexpected negative effect on the learner. 6. The theory doesn’t take into account any undisclosed cognitive and emotional factors. Gagné (1916-2002) developed behaviourism further and was a major contributor to instructional development. In 1965 he published The Conditions Of Learning in which he appropriates the type of instructional designs to the learning objectives. Gagné identified five major categories of learning: verbal information; intellectual skills; cognitive strategies; attitudes; motor skill. Different internal and external conditions are required for each category. For example if cognitive strategies are to be learned then practicing the development of new solutions must take place. With regard to attitudes then there must be some kind of debate with persuasive argument taking place. This is an improvement on Pavlov’s dog and Skinners’ operant conditioning but there are still disadvantages. The curriculum is in the middle of the model and doesn’t change to suit the needs of the learner. Even with the inclusion of the Gestaltist idea that learning the whys and wherefores behind the facts provides better retention of learned information, the behaviourism model is found to be lacking. 'Learning is a complex process, and the behaviourists, like the other schools of psychology, give us only part of the story'. (Petty p.16) People began to realise the limitations of Behaviourism with regard to understanding learning as early as the 1920’s. The teacher and curriculum remain unchanged and the learners are expected to conform to preconceived behaviours to enable learning. Learners who struggle to do this through no fault of their own are at an unfair disadvantage. It also seems to rob learners of the chance to think or discover for themselves. To remedy this worry we need to turn to the Cognitivists. Cognitivism (Bruner, Bloom) Cognitivism in psychology was a movement that came into usage in the 1950’s. It is a framework for understanding the mind and was a response to Behaviourism which acknowledged the existence of thinking but was identified as behaviour. Behaviourism was replaced by Cognitivism in the 1960’s. Cognitivists argue that the learning process is centred around thinking rather than simply modifying behaviour. 13 key concepts with regard to Cognitive learning theory are as follows: • Schema. A cognitive structure. New information is compared to existing knowledge structures which can be combines, extended and altered to accommodate new learning. • Three-stage information processing model. The first stage is the Sensory Register. This lasts up to four seconds and the information can be either lost through decay or replacement. Some information is passed onto the second stage which is the Short Term Memory (STM). This lasts up to 20 seconds and is made up the important/interesting information from sensory register information. The third stage is Long Term Memory and storage (LTM). Long term memory has unlimited capacity and retention of material is much better through deeper understanding and linking new information with old. • Meaningful effects – Meaningful information is easier to learn and remember. • Serial position effects – Information at the start or end of a list is easier to learn and remember. • Practice effects – Practicing or rehearsing improves retention. • Transfer effects – The effects of previous understanding on the new information. • Interference effects – When prior learning interferes with new learning. • Organisation effects – Categorisation of information helps learning. • Levels of processing effects – Deeper processing (ie. the meaning of a word rather than the spelling of it) makes things easier to remember. • State dependent effects – Keeping learning of new material in the same context rather than a new context enables better understanding. • Mnemonic effects – Creating meaningful images out of meaningless input, like making a rhyme out of the notes on a musical stave. • Schema effects – Existing knowledge may be at odds with new learning, making it harder to remember. • Advance organisers – These prepare learners for what they are going to learn. Rather than being brief outlines of the material it is the material which enables the learner to make sense of the lesson. These concepts view the human brain as a computer. One could equate the sensory input as a mouse or keyboard, short term and long term memory could be compared to RAM and hard disk space. The main difference is that learner could be regarded as a computer at risk from a ‘mind of it’s own’, with regard to retention of facts and the many ways in which the material can be lost, either through decay, replacement, preconceived ideas, distraction etc. The concept of ‘discovery learning’ (Dewey 1859-1952) is to allow learners to discover and explore the relationship between ideas and concepts rather than regurgitating a series of facts. This is a more learner centred approach to the learning process and Dewey advocated student centred learning and changing the curriculum to their needs. Jerome Bruner agrees with his idea of student centred learning and allowing learners to explore and discover the whys and wherefores of the given facts rather than treating the material as a dispensed and acquired object. Bruner also believed that many cognitive processes, including learning, are a process of categorisation. "To perceive is to categorize, to conceptualize is to categorize, to learn is to form categories, to make decisions is to categorize."  (Bruner b. 1915). He also believed that the sequencing and structuring of learning is essential to teaching and learning and that the learning process is central to the holistic development of the individual. 'Jerome Bruner expressed the view that 'expository teaching' deprived students of the chance to think for themselves. He said the modern curriculum should strip away all but the bare facts, and leave time for teaching thinking skills. He thought intelligence was the 'internalisation of cognitive tools’ and believed it could be improved by appropriate teaching.' (Petty p.319) Another key exponent of cognitivism is Benjamin Bloom (1913-1999). He worked in the examiners office in Chicago and wanted to devise a way of assessing the cognitive complexity of learning outcomes. This hierarchy of cognitive complexity is expressed as Blooms Taxonomy and shows that the higher levels of thinking and learning are based on and require the lower level thinking and learning as a foundation. [pic] One can see how his taxonomy could help in the planning of teaching and learning as well as enabling assessment of learning outcomes. At the bottom we have simple memorising of facts, then the understanding of the facts in context and the application of facts. This stands to reason; you can’t apply knowledge without knowledge. The revised edition of the taxonomy places synthesis higher than evaluation. Other people consider evaluation, synthesis (shown as ‘create’ here) and evaluation as equal. [pic] Critiques of the taxonomy questioned the link or sequence between the levels of learning. Richard Morshead stated, on the second revision of the taxonomy, that the classification wasn’t a properly constructed taxonomy and it lacked a systemic rationale of construction. I think the concept is a good one and should be modified in relation to the learner and curriculum. Most of the units I teach contain a self evaluation at the end of a creative process and the one which doesn’t have an evaluation contains a lot of analysis and no real creativity. Self evaluation is a very important step to the creative process, allowing the learner to identify their strengths, areas for development and future goals based on this process. Constructivism (Dewey, Bruner) Bruner (b. 1915) suggested the importance of constant re-visiting of subject material, proposing a Spiral Curriculum Model where the subject matter was re-visited. Each time the subject was re-visited the learning outcomes became a little more sophisticated. This is similar to Bloom’s taxonomy. However, Bruner also argued that any learner could learn any subject material, provided the material was sequenced out appropriately, this is in contrast with other ‘stage’ theorists. Bruner proposed three modes of representation: enactive (action based), iconic (image based) and symbolic (language based), and that these modes are only loosely sequenced as they ‘translate’ into each other. His theory suggests a progression from enactive, to iconic, to symbolic (even for adult learners). Constructivism is more a description of how learning happens rather than a pedagogy in its own right. Jean Piaget (189601980) suggested that learners will assimilate and/or accommodate new learning with past experience. Assimilation is where the learner incorporates the new learning into an already existing framework of experience without changing that framework. Accommodation happens when the learner reframes their preconceptions to fit new experiences. 'The constructivists view is that we identify the students' current ideas which they may well have to modify or abandon before they can construct new meaning.' (Reece and Walker p.89) Constructivism is linked to pedagogic styles that promote active learning, or learning by doing. By doing something one can identify assimilation with prior experiences (this could also occur as a failure to change a faulty understanding) or one can learn from one’s own mistakes and reframe the preconceived idea. This style of learning promotes the idea of facilitators and not teachers. For example, rather than the teacher giving a lecture on how to use a mixing desk the facilitator will enable learners to try it out for themselves on a real (or virtual) mixer. This enables the learner to assimilate the experience with their past experiences and to accommodate new learning through a process of trial and error, learning from your own mistakes or the mistakes of others. The facilitator will observe and assist and correct as appropriate. Dewey (1859-1952) explains this himself: ‘The teacher is not in the school to impose certain ideas or to form certain habits in the child, but is there as a member of the community to select the influences which shall affect the child and to assist him in properly responding to these influences’ (1987, p. 9). Dewey argued that ‘if knowledge comes from the impressions made upon us by natural objects, it is impossible to procure knowledge without the use of objects which impress the mind’ (Dewey, 1916/2009, p. 217-218 John Dewey’s educational theories back up this idea of student centred learning. Dewey believed that in a framework centred on the curriculum, “the child is simply the immature being who is to be matured; he is the superficial being who is to be deepened” (1902, p. 13). For education to be meaningful and for the learner to gain a deeper understanding they should be allowed to relate the learning with prior experience. Constructivism bases learning on past experience, so what about adult learners' These learners will have a much firmer idea of the world and will have built a framework of understanding based on much firmer preconceptions (including preconceptions about the learning process itself). Children are able to learn by building new neurological structures. Adults will already have firm structures in place and learn by making connections between them rather than creating new ones. This has an impact on adult learning in a number of ways which are based on: co-operation, consent and agreement; diagnosis of learner needs; modification of the course to suit learner needs; sequential activities to enable learning outcomes; relating learning to learners’ past experiences. Adult learners should be informed as to why the learning is important to promote deeper understanding. This is why I teach the theory behind and mechanics of mixing music to a group of learners and then allow them to do it for themselves with their own music. This enables the promotion of the meaning and importance of the process as well as the mechanics of moving a fader up and down (the objective content of the material). It also enables discovery learning in a learner centred way. I can visit each learner while they mix their own music, giving individual advice in an individual way, based on learner needs (the subjective content of the material). The potential flaw in this theory, according to Dewey, is that it minimises the importance of both the content of the course and the role of the teacher. This method of teaching also requires constant assessment as the sequenced subject matter unfolds. Humanism (Maslow, Rogers) Humanists are often seen to be in direct opposition to the Behaviourists. Carl Rogers (1902-87) stated that the role of the teacher should be facilitator. He went further still and stated that the learner should be held in ‘unconditional positive regard’ (Rogers 1983) by the teacher. He believed that the teacher should be ‘non-judgemental and accepting and the learner should be made to feel valued and cared for ‘(Wallace 2001). This stance isn’t always an easy one to take when learners are disruptive or late for lessons but as a teacher one must ask the question ‘why is this learner acting in this way'’ and use professional judgement with regard to any response to negative behaviour. Perhaps conflict is what the learner is used to at home so they try to illicit this behaviour elsewhere, perhaps they aren’t as attentive as the teacher would like because they have to care for a guardian. Abraham Maslow (1908-70) would go further and suggest that the learner can’t learn until their basic needs are met. These include the basics of life itself like breathing, water, food etc. but also include security of body, employment, the family, health, resources and property. Without the basics in place the learner cannot realise their full potential as a human, or self-actualisation as Maslow would put it. Maslow’s most widely known theory is the hierarchy of needs. [pic] This theory suggests that we should ensure learners are comfortable, well nourished and safe and that any barrier to a learner’s well being should also be considered a barrier to learning. As teachers it is our job to ensure the learners feel safe in the classroom and make sure the room itself is at an appropriate temperature for example. We have to be approachable and friendly and pay attention to learner needs. If a learner displays certain behaviour which suggests abuse or neglect then we are legally obliged to inform an appropriate member of staff and refer the case. ‘Are our learners warm enough' Are they hungry or tired' Do they have anxieties which are creating a barrier to their learning' Do we scare them' Are we sufficiently approachable' Are they being bullied' Are they scared of looking stupid'’ (Wallace 2001) Motivation Maslow believed that human needs are linked to motivation and that once a need is satisfied it stops acting as a motivator, enabling the person to act un-selfishly and enabling learning to take place. Fredrick Herzberg (1923-2000) was a psychologist who was an influential name in the world of business management. His work included interviewing employees about what pleased them and what satisfied them about their job. The trend was that people got satisfaction from the work itself and growth/advancement and that things leading to dissatisfaction were external to the work itself (salary, company policy, supervision, work conditions). He argued that because the factors causing satisfaction differ from the ones which caused satisfaction they can’t be treated as opposites. The image below shows that Herzberg identified the lower needs as Hygiene factors and not related to the activities which cause growth or achievement, identified as Motivators here. He came to the conclusion that any ‘carrot and stick’ incentives do not produce long term motivation because the motivators must come from the work itself rather than a bag of sweets for the person who finishes the work first. [pic] 'Motivation is a key factor in successful learning. A less able student who is highly motivated can achieve greater success than the intelligent student who is not well motivated... Our task, then, is to maximize motivation.' (Reece & Walker, p.76) How do we maximise motivation' The answer implied by Herzberg and Maslow is to make the work stimulating and enjoyable and that the learner should get a real sense of growth and achievement through the process of self actualisation. I have noticed learners who practice for the end of year show seem more motivated that learners who are making music with computers, this is because there is a big goal at the end of the process and the process is challenging enough for the learner to utilize their full ability. To maximise motivation we must ensure the curriculum is appropriate for the learner with regard to challenge and difficulty, and for a real sense of achievement to be had upon completion of the work. Critics of this theory say people are more likely to blame external factors for dissatisfaction and it’s only natural for people to take credit for satisfaction, and that job satisfaction isn’t really a prime motivator. Despite this, Herzberg’s theory endures because it realises that people are not motivated by short term factors. Criticism of Maslow focuses on two major points. His scientific study wasn’t always rigorous, relied on case studies and that there wasn’t enough experimental work done with regard to self-actualisation. The second criticism is that the studies identified self-actualisation only in highly educated white males, implying sexism, racism and classism in Maslow’s work and that which stems from it. People can still achieve without having all of their basic needs met, sometimes an artist will become less prolific/creative after they have become famous and it’s the poverty they lived in which gave them the motivation to write. Experiential Learning (Kolb) Aristotle once said, "For the things we have to learn before we can do them, we learn by doing them." (Bynum and Porter 2005). David A. Kolb (b. 1939) developed the ideas of Dewey, Lewin and Piaget and expanded the philosophy of experiential learning theory (ELT). During the early 1970’s Kolb and Ron Fry developed (and eventually published by Kolb in 1984, after many years of work) the experiential learning model which comprised of a four stage cycle: • Concrete experience (CE) • Reflective observation on that experience (RO) • Abstract conceptualisation, based upon the reflection (AC) • Active experimentation (AE) • (repeat) [pic] Developed primarily for use in adult education, in this spiral model of learning the learner can begin at any point but usually starts with concrete experience. The experiences provide the basis for observation and reflection. The observations and reflections are assimilated and distilled into abstract concepts which produce new implications for action which can be actively tested. This ensures the learning is whole and includes all main elements (experimenting, reflecting, thinking, and acting). The model also identifies a four-type definition of learning styles (on preference) each represents the combination of two preferred styles: • Diverging (CE/RO) • Assimilating (AC/RO) • Converging (AC/AE) • Accommodating (CE/AE) This theory offers a way to understand an individual’s learning styles and also an explanation of the cycle of experiential learning that applies to everyone. Additionally, Kolb identified three main stages of a person’s development and explains that we are more able to integrate with all four learning styles as we mature through the stages. 1. Acquisition – birth to adolescence – development of basic abilities and cognitive structures 2. Specialisation – schooling, early work and personal experiences of adulthood – the development of a particular specialised learning style shaped by social, educational, and organisational socialisation. 3. Integration – mid-career through to later life – expression of non-dominant learning style in work and personal life. What influences the choice of style is the product of two variables or ‘choices’. Kolb presents these as a line of axis with two opposing or ‘conflicting’ modes at either end: Concrete Experience - CE (feeling) -----V-----Abstract Conceptualization - AC (thinking) Active Experimentation - AE (doing)-----V----- Reflective Observation - RO (watching) [pic] What Kolb means by ‘conflicting’ is that we cannot do both at the same time but our urge to do both at the same time creates conflict. This conflict is resolved when we are presented with a new learning situation, we decide if we will do or watch and at the same time we decide whether to think or feel. The result of these decisions produces a preferred learning style. We ‘grasp’ the new experience by either watching (reflective observation) or doing (active experimentation) and the emotional response is transformed through either thinking (abstract conceptualisation) or feeling (concrete experience). This can be expressed as a matrix view, highlighting Kolb’s terminology for the four learning styles: |  |Doing (Active Experimentation - AE) |Watching (Reflective Observation - RO) | |Feeling (Concrete Experience - |Accommodating (CE/AE) |Diverging (CE/RO) | |CE) | | | |Thinking (Abstract |Converging (AC/AE) |Assimilating (AC/RO) | |Conceptualization - AC) | | | We can see here that a learner who prefers to jump straight in and ‘do’ and also ‘thinks’ about what is happening is considered (in Kolb’s terms) to prefer a converging learning style. A second learner observing the activity may prefer to ‘feel’ what is happening and is considered to prefer a diverging learning style. What this means in practical terms is that we can create a mind map of these individuals and plan the teaching and learning appropriately. Diverging (feeling and watching – CE/RO). Able to look at things from different perspectives. Sensitive. Gathering information and use imagination to solve a problem. Best at viewing concrete situations from several different view points. Good at brain storming. Broad cultural interest. Interested in people. Emotional. Strong in the arts. Prefer to work in groups. They listen with an open mind and prefer to receive personal feedback. Assimilating (watching and thinking AC/RO). Concise logical approach. Ideas and concepts are more important than people. Require good clear explanation rather than practical tasks. Good at arranging information into a clear logical format. More interested in ideas and abstract concepts than people. More interested in logically sound theories than practical value. Prefer readings, lectures, exploring analytical models and having time to think things through. Converging (doing and thinking AC/AE). Problem solvers. Able to find solutions to practical issues through learning. Prefer technical tasks. Less people orientated. Best at finding practical uses for ideas and theories. This style enables specialist and technical abilities. Prefer to experiment with new ideas, to simulate and to work with practical applications. Accommodating (doing and feeling CE/AE). Hands on. Relying on intuition rather than logic. Prefer to take an active experiential approach. Attracted to new challenges and experiences. Act on ‘gut instinct’ rather than logical analysis. Tend to rely on others for analysis than to carry out their own. Useful in roles requiring action and initiative. Prefer to work in teams. Set targets and actively seek to achieve them in many ways. Although it may be wrong to stereo type people, they often express a preference to one particular learning style Learners who prefer the assimilating learning style wouldn’t be comfortable to begin a recording session without a plan and notes. People who prefer the accommodating style would consider the idea of a plan and notes frustrating, preferring to get stuck in and perhaps generate their own future plan based on the activity. Kolb suggests that learning takes place best when the learner is placed in their preferred role. The preferred learning styles can also be expressed in a model highlighting the learner’s preferred place in the learning cycle. One can easily see a similarity between the learning styles highlighted by Honey and Mumford and the ones suggested by Kolb. Activist = Accommodating and so on. Peter Honey and Alan Mumford added to Kolb’s work, saying that the learner should be encouraged to work on their weaknesses with regard to learning styles, resulting in a more ‘rounded’ learner. This supports Kolb’s three main stages of development, Honey and Mumford agree that: ‘Our description of the stages in the learning cycle originated from the work of David Kolb. Kolb uses different words to describe the stages of the learning cycle and four learning styles...’ And,… ‘The similarities between his model and ours are greater than the differences..’ (Honey & Mumford) [pic] 'Honey and Mumford devised their learning styles approach to promote learning, not to stereotype learners, and believe that all learners should work on their weak styles to improve their learning' (Petty p.150) Andragogy & Pedagogy (Knowles) Also linked (albeit indirectly) to the three stages of development suggested by Kolb, and the motivation issues highlighted by Mazlow and Herzberg is the idea of Pedagogy vs. Andragogy. Pedagogy is derived from the Greek word ‘paid’ meaning child plus ‘agogos’ meaning leading. In this model the instructor is at the centre of the learning, commonly known as teacher directed instruction, actively promoting dependency on the instructor. It was originally developed in the monastic schools of Europe in the Middle Ages and is still used in Europe and America as the dominant model of instruction today. This model has been applied in equal measure to the teaching of children and adults which raises a worry that the principle may not apply to adult learning. 'The process of ageing brings problems and opportunities for the student. In the case of older students, their experiences have multiplied, have been interpreted and reinterpreted and their perceptions of the world may have changed radically.' (Curzon p.256) Andragogy (Greek: “man-leading”) was first used by German educator Alexander Kapp in 1833 and was later developed into a learning theory by Malcolm Knowles (1913-1997), an American educator. He shared the worry that pedagogy may not be appropriate for adult learning, highlighting (in 1984) that this system doesn’t account for the development of adults and creates tension, resentment and resistance in individuals. Knowles reasons for developing the theory was due to emerging evidence that people who take initiative and ownership of their educational activities learn more and better than those who are more passive in the process. He states that a self-directed learning is "more in tune with our natural process of psychological development" (Knowles 1975, p. 14) and as we mature we develop the ability take more responsibility. The theory can be expressed as several assumptions based on the motivation of adult learners. 1. Adults need to know the reason for learning (need to know) 2. Experience provides the basis of the learning (foundation) 3. Adults need to be responsible and take ownership of their learning and the evaluation of it (self concept) 4. The learning should relate directly to their own lives and work (readiness) 5. Problem-centred rather than content-oriented (orientation) 6. Adults prefer internal motivators as opposed to external ones (Motivation) Knowles doesn’t completely discount pedagogy. He sees the two as if they are at two ends of a spectrum. And that, in a given situation, the teaching and learning will fall somewhere between the two. This allows the tutor to decide, on an individual basis, how to engage learners. The main thing, I feel, is to encourage learning to move continually towards the andragogy end of the spectrum. ". . . andragogy is simply another model of assumptions about adult learners to be used alongside the pedagogical model of assumptions, thereby providing two alternative models for testing out the assumptions as to their 'fit' with particular situations. Furthermore, the models are probably most useful when seen not as dichotomous but rather as two ends of a spectrum , with a realistic assumption (about learners) in a given situation falling in between the two ends" (Knowles, 1980, p. 43 ). Action Learning (Revans) Action learning draws on experiential learning, creative complex problem solving, acquiring relevant knowledge and co-learning group support. Its main characteristics are the emphasis on learning by doing. It is conducted in teams addressing company/organisational issues with the participants placed in problem-solving roles and team decisions or statements being made through formalised presentations. Action learning is particularly useful: • To address complex problems which are hard to resolve • To find solutions for underlying root causes of problems • To determine a new strategic direction or to maximise new opportunities • Generating creative ideas [pic] L = Learning P = Programmed knowledge Q = insightful Questioning The 10 steps in action learning 1. Clarify the objective of the action learning group. 2. Group formation. 3. Analyse the issue(s) and decide what actions will solve the issue 4. The owner of the problem presents it to the group 5. The group will reframe the problem through questioning and consultation 6. Determine goals 7. Develop action strategies 8. Take action 9. Repeat the cycle 10. Capturing learning. The Action Group Consultant can ask questions enabling the group members to clarify the problem, find ways to improve group performance, and identify how their learning can be used to develop themselves, the team and the organisation. [pic] A group of four to six people make up the ‘set’. The problem they are faced with must be real, in that nobody knows the answer yet. The set cannot contain any specialists in the field because this will reduce the opportunity for everyone in the set to contribute. Participants may be working on the same problem of different ones, meeting only to work as a set. The set is usually a closed group and will meet every couple of weeks for several months. Meetings will usually take the form of set members individually presenting an update on their work and being questioned by the other members of the set. Questioning must be open-ended and promote reflection and planning, similar to the experiential learning model. At the end of each set member’s ‘turn’ they will give an outline of work they plan to do in the next time period. Action learning sets differ from task forces as the idea is to optimise the learning as well as the outcome. The participants must have an interest in solving the problem, so most problems will be based on common areas – the work place etc. 'The main objective is to learn how to ask appropriate questions in conditions of risk, rather than to answer questions that have been defined by teachers, and do not allow for ambiguous responses because the examiners know the approved answers'. (University of Sydney 2009). Each set will have an ‘advisor’ experienced in action learning approach their main roles are to establish the rules and get the group working. They will also model the questioning process and promote others to do the same, promoting the ‘learning how to learn’ element. They will also point members in the direction of useful resources and models. Group Development Group development shows five key stages that a group can develop and behave over time. The (then 4) stages, Forming, Storming, Norming, Performing were first described in 1965 by Dr. Bruce W Tuckman who revised and came up with the fifth stage, Adjourning in 1975. Here is a brief description of each stage. 1. Forming – individuals are motivated mainly by the need for acceptance in the group and will have a high dependence on a ‘leader’. Keen to avoid conflict or controversy, this is a comfortable stage to be in but not a lot gets done. Most decisions are made by the leader who (in a similar mode to Situational Leadership telling mode) will quickly have to decide the purpose and objectives of the group. Members will test the tolerance of the leader and the system. 2. Storming – this is where the ‘happy families’ portrayed in stage 1 disappear. As people get to know each other, conflicts of interest arise and important issues are addressed. The leadership of the group (now in a Similar mode to Situational Leadership selling mode) as well as the purpose and aims of the group may come into question. Confrontations will be quickly glossed over. Individuals may feel as if they are winning or losing battles within the group – some individuals will want to revert back to stage 1. This is a politically exploratory phase where alliances, cliques and factions form based on mutual needs/wants. 3. Norming – eventually the group will come to a consensus and agreement is formed, with regard to aims and purpose of the group. The team will respond to the facilitation of the leader (now in a mode similar to participating mode in Situational Leadership) who will occasionally receive challenges from other group members. Small decisions may be delegated to other individuals or sub groups. They may engage in fun and social activities. Leadership is shared more among the team also and they will discuss and hone their working style and processes, policy, procedure etc. The team must stay focussed on the aims of the group in order to not revert back to the storming phase. The group is also at risk of reverting to storming by members who aren’t pulling their weight or struggle to cope in the situation. 4. Performing – not every group reaches the performing stage. This is a state of interdependence and flexibility. The team is more strategically aware of what they are doing and why. This is a high comfort stage so the group are able to work autonomously or as a group/sub groups to reach the aims of the group without energy wasted on issues found in previous stages. Identity, loyalty and morale are high and everyone is oriented to the task and to the people in the group. Leader facilitation is lower than in previous stages, taking on a more delegating role (Similar to Situational Leadership delegating mode). [pic] 5. Adjourning (or deforming and mourning) – as the group winds down and reflects on the journey they have been through together the members will feel glad that they have been a part of an enjoyable group and mourn the sense of loss of the group. The members of the group may be at risk from insecurity or threat from the change so organisations need to be aware of that and any learning centre must be sensitive to this issue. The group breaks up having (hopefully) met all targets and it’s former members will leave and move onto other things. I have seen this happen many times with college bands (and my own band) and for most of them this theory of stages seems to apply. I have seen bands unable to progress easily from norming to performing due to inappropriate leadership, and have even reverted back to storming on a regular basis. This needs to be dealt with sensitively and swiftly, and goals and aims must be reiterated at all times. I’ve also seen bands break up before meeting targets, or not reaching the performing stage due to learners being withdrawn and/or learners not having a particularly good leader. Sometimes it’s due to the group being made up of weaker members who find it hard to stay on task or are unable to complete their tasks. Working with humans always means random results in real world applications. The descriptions of the stages do ring true however. It just has to be managed well for all stages to take place with all bands at (hopefully) the same time. 'The sheer scale of such theory - by seeking to present a universal or general picture can mean it over-reaches itself. While there may be some 'universals of development' when we come to examine, in this case, the individual group things are rarely that straightforward. Human processes are frequently characterised by variability and flux. Furthermore, our own experiences of groups are likely to show significant deviations from the path laid out by stage theories. 'Stages' may be missed out, other ways of naming a phase or experiences may be more appropriate.' (Infed 2009) Inductive & Deductive Learning For us to meet the diverse range of learners in a class room, we need to vary our approach to teaching. A dichotomy relating to this is inductive-deductive learning. Deductive teaching (or direct instruction) is based on the idea that highly structured presentation of the content enables the best learning for students. A topic or concept is introduced by defining it and demonstrating examples (including examples which don’t fit the concept). Learners practice the concept under tutor guidance and feedback until they master the concept. This is a top-down style of teaching where a brief lecture takes place, all information is given on a plate and the new concept is tested/practiced by the learner. ‘It gets straight to the point, and therefore can be time-saving.  It respects the intelligence and maturity of many – especially adult – students and acknowledges the role of cognitive processes in language acquisition. ….It confirms many students’ expectations about classroom learning.’  (Thornbury 1999) Inductive learning (discovery/inquiry teaching) is built on the claim that the learner will learn most through experiences and interactions with phenomena (experiential learning). The instructor will expose the learners to a concrete fact and the learners are encouraged to partake in Q&A, observe and look out for patterns make their own minds up and to make the general rule based on observation. Phenomena are explored before being named in a similar way to the ‘learning cycle’ method. Inquiry-based teaching is also considered part of the inductive style. Learners are expected to experiment, develop and test hypotheses in order to generalise a principle. deductive approach:                      General rule → Specific examples → Practice inductive approach:                        Specific examples → Practice → General rule It’s up to the teacher (or facilitator) to decide which course of action to take, depending on the material and learner (and available resources). There will be a diverse range of learners with different needs so a mixture of both during teaching would be appropriate. 'Both approaches have their benefits, and choice of approach may depend on the topic under consideration. Also some students of your class will prefer an inductive approach whilst the other students may learn better with the deductive one. It could well be that the best approach is to use a mix of the two throughout the course.' (Reece & Walker p.89) Bibliography: Reece, I. & Walker, S. 2008, Teaching Training and Learning: A Practical Guide. Business Education Publishers Curzon, L.B. 1976. Teaching In Further Education. 6th Edition. Continuum. Petty, G. 1993. Teaching Today. 4th Edition. Stanley Thornes Hopkins, D. 2002. A Teacher's Guide To Classroom Research. 3rd Edition. Open University Press. Gravells, A. 2006. Preparing To Teach In The Lifelong Learning Sector. 2nd Edition. Learning Matters Wallace, S. 2001. Teaching and Supporting Learning in Further Education. Learning Matters. Knowles, M. S. (1975). Self-directed learning. New York: Association Press. Knowles, M. S. (1980). Modern practice of adult education: From pedagogy to andragogy. Revised and updated. Chicago: Follett Publishing Company, Association Press. Knowles, M. (1984). The adult learner: A neglected species. (3rd ed.), Houston: Gulf Publishing. Bynum, W.F. and Porter, R. (eds) (2005) Oxford Dictionary of Scientific Quotations. Oxford University Press. 21:9. Action and Research: Action Learning [online], Available from: http://www2.fhs.usyd.edu.au/arow/o/m07/actionlearning.htm [Accessed: 25.05.2011]. What is Action Learning [online], Available from: http://www.actionlearningassociates.co.uk/actionlearning.html [Accessed: 25.05.2011]. bruce w. tuckman - forming, storming norming and performing in groups [online], Available from: http://www.infed.org/thinkers/tuckman.htm [Accessed: 25.05.2011]. Famous Models: Stages of Group Development [online], Available from: http://www.infed.org/thinkers/tuckman.htm [Accessed: 25.05.2011].