Data_Analysis

What is Business Research' ‘Research’ has been defined in a number of ways, depending upon peculiar interests and demands of the researcher, his professional training and skills and, of course, the nature of the problem being examined or analysed. In this sense, there is no one standard definition of research (same is true of the dictionaries defining research). Similarly, there is no one way of doing research. Research can be done in numerous ways, from chronological to descriptive to analytical, from qualitative to quantitative, from explanatory to predictive, from exploratory to evaluative (cost - benefit analysis) to instrumental and action-oriented, to theoretical to applied research. There is a whole variety of research possible. In a similar vein, the term ‘methodology’ has been defined in various ways, indeed ‘normatively’ and ‘structurally’. Normatively, it has been defined in the sense of theory of knowledge (epistemology) or philosophy of science. The dominant theory, of course, is ‘logical positivism’, a philosophical tradition that holds that all ‘facts’ are derived from ‘experience’, defined minimally in terms of senses, and that all knowledge is based on experience. Judgments of ‘values’ cannot be accepted as knowledge. The main argument of the empiricists as a whole remained, as always, their emphasis on experience, empirical experience. That is, an experience brought forth by facts which could be ‘observed’ and ‘verified’. In operational terms today, it means identification of the problem (research problem), formulation of hypotheses (the relation of ‘independent’ variables to one or more ‘dependent’ variable/s), collection and analysis of data to test the variables in a measurable relation, rejection or validation of hypotheses suggesting a relationship (ideally ‘causal’, that is, ‘cause and effect relationship’), and generalization of the findings or conclusions into a ‘theory’, ‘model’, ‘system’, or an ‘approach’. This process of inquiry that tests against reality in a disciplined manner, with each step in the process quite explicit and integral, is described as the ‘scientific’ method, or, more specifically, the ‘empirical method’ (after the empiricists). DATA & IT TYPES Data are facts, figures, enumerations and other materials, past and present, serving as basis for study and analysis; they are raw material for analysis; provide basis for testing hypothesis, developing scales and tables Data help researchers draw inferences on specific issues/ problems Quality of Findings depend on relevance, adequacy and reliability of data Types of Data (not in Statistical sense) 1. Personal data (individual as a source)  Demographic and Socio-economic characteristics  Behaviour variables  Attitude, behaviour, opinions  Awareness, preferences, knowledge  Practices, intensions 2. Organizational data (organizational sources)  Archives  Manuscript library  Museums  3 Territorial data  Economic structure, occupation pattern METHODS AND TECHNIQUES OF DATA COLLECTION Secondary data  How to Scrutinize  Published & unpublished  Methods where used A. Meta analysis B. Historical method C. Content analysis D. Informetrics E. Use studies Primary Data A. Records and relics B. Observation C. Experimentation D. Simulation E. Ask people orally F. Ask people in writing G. Panel study H. Projective techniques I. Sociometry J. Case study • Interview / Depth interview / schedule • Mail Survey / questionnaire • Mechanical devices How to collect data' I. Use existing data Already collected by someone else for different / general purpose (paper method) i.e, Secondary data  Published or unpublished  Retrospective panel study  Letters  Unpublished biographic / autobiographics  Library statistics  Raw data like invoices / log data for expenditure & use of data bases  Published directories for (i) study funding for research activities (ii) statistics about publishing industry  Published reports of UN, world bank, IMF, WHO, ILO etc. Use Secondary data  As supplementary data  For reference purpose  As bench marks (for comparison)  Rarely as sole / main source Advantages  Quick  Cheap  Wide coverage (space and time)  Broad database leading to generalizations  Cross check Primary data Disadvantages  Suitability  Up-to – dateness  Accuracy  Availability and accessibility Scrutinize Secondary data for 1. Reliability  Who collected (possible bias)  From what sources  Which methods  What time  What accuracy 2. Suitability  Definition of terms  Units of measurements  Objective, scope and nature of survey 3. Adequacy  Level of accuracy  Narrower or wider than present study  Completeness in terms of methodology and sampling design Types of Secondary data 1. published (literature0 2. Unpublished - Diaries - Letters - Unpublished biographic A Meta analysis - Analysis of several analyses - A way of extracting meaningful (statistical) information / data from lots of small studies (trials). B. Historical Method - Systematic and objective location, evaluation and synthesis of evidence order to establish facts and draw conclusions about past events - Deals with the evidence of man’s past acts and thoughts - Attempts to test the truthfulness of the report of observations made PRIMARY SOURCES FOR HISTORICAL RESEARCH 1. Remains or relics - Skeletons, fossils, weapons, tools, utensils, buildings, pictures, furniture, coins, etc. 2. Items that have direct physical relationship with the event being reconstructed, i.e. written and oral testimony - annuals, archive catalog, chronicle - deeds, legend, manuscript, memoir, register etc - museums C. Content analysis ( a quantitative method) - Both for collection and analysis of data - Developed in USA for communication research - Useful for historical research Definition:- • A quantitative analysis of contents of written documents, i.e a multipurpose research method meant specially for investigating a broad spectrum of problems in which the contents of communication serve as a basis of inference • Transforms verbal, non quantitative document into quantitative data • Systematic and quantitative description of manifest contents of communication DATA COLLECTION THROUGH EXPERIMENTATION ON THE SUBJECT EXPERIMENTATION (& OBSERVE) • Basic design of logical proof to test hypothesis with three basic principles:- - Replication –Repeated Several times - Randomization – protects extraneous factors of chance - Local Control – Deliberate wide variability to measure and eliminate error • Helps finding causal relationship between variables • Employs a set of control and experimental groups • Administration treatment / stimuli • Controlled observation of change / deviation in variables (Adequate control is the essence => reduce bias increases reliability Types: • Lab experiments • Field experiments – A real life situation Simulate the condition Simulation (& observe) • Cheaper and suited to systems with interrelated and interdependent components Types: • Man simulation (role / game playing) • Computer simulation • Man-computer simulation • Used in war strategies, behavioral, political economics and business problems Applications • Earliest use involved work counts and usage rates of words (i) throw light on authenticity of a source document (ii) drawing inference about inner emotional states (e.g. anxiety) • Personality traits from logical and cognitive characteristics of verbal communication • Aspects of culture and cultural change probe hypothesis pertaining to the contents of material e.g themes of most contemporary best –selling novels are based primarily upon sex or violence” • Identify activities characterized as sex or violence • Quantitatively analyses the themes (content) • Test the hypothesis • Hypothesis testing is facilitated when a comparison is sought in a study between or among elements of various documents role of mass media in moulding public opinion • Stand of newspapers on current issues • Philosophy of saints, leaders, authors etc • Themes and values of novels and short stories • Socio-cultural life in ancient times • Measuring behaviour variables like need, values, attitudes, authoritarianism, creativity, etc through analysis of both available materials and deliberately created materials of protective type • Propaganda technique (marketing) • Literary style, concepts or beliefs of writers