Communication_and_Professional_Relationships_with_Children,_Young_People_and_Adults.

Understand child and young person development 1. Understand the expected pattern of development for children and young people from Birth-19 years. 2.1 Explain the sequence and rate of each aspect of development from birth-19 years Aspects of development: * Physical * Communication * Intellectual/cognitive * Social, emotional and behavioural * Moral. There are three broad stages of development: early childhood, middle childhood, and adolescence. The definitions of these stages are organized around the primary tasks of development in each stage, though the boundaries of these stages aren’t exact. Society's ideas about childhood shift over time, and research has led to new understandings of the development that takes place in each stage. Early Childhood (Birth to Eight Years) Physical: Early childhood is a time of tremendous growth across all areas of development. The dependent newborn grows into a young person who can take care of his or her own body and interact effectively with others. Physically, between birth and age three a child typically doubles in height and quadruples in weight. Bodily proportions also change, so that the infant, whose head accounts for almost one-fourth of total body length, becomes a toddler with a more balanced, adult-like appearance. Despite these rapid physical changes, the typical three-year-old has mastered many skills, including sitting, walking, toilet training, using a spoon, scribbling, and sufficient hand-eye coordination to catch and throw a ball. Between three and five years of age, children continue to grow rapidly and begin to develop fine-motor skills. By age five most children demonstrate fairly good control of pencils, crayons, and scissors. Gross motor accomplishments may include the ability to skip and balance on one foot. Physical growth slows down between five and eight years of age, while body proportions and motor skills become more advanced. Communication: Physical changes in early childhood are accompanied by rapid changes in the child's cognitive and language development. From the moment they are born, children use all their senses to attend to their environment, and they begin to develop a sense of cause and effect from their actions and the responses of caregivers. Over the first three years of life, children develop a spoken vocabulary of between 300 and 1,000 words, and they are able to use language to learn about and describe the world around them. By age five, a child's vocabulary will grow to approximately 1,500 words. Five-year-olds are also able to produce five-to seven-word sentences, learn to use the past tense, and tell familiar stories using pictures as cues. Language is a powerful tool to enhance cognitive development. Using language allows the child to communicate with others and solve problems. By age eight, children are able to demonstrate some basic understanding of less concrete concepts, including time and money. However, the eight-year old still reason in straight forward ways and has difficulty understanding anything that is more complex. Intellectual/cognitive: The time from birth to eight years is a critical period in the development of many foundational skills in all areas of development. Increased awareness of, and ability to detect, developmental delays in very young children has led to the creation of early intervention services that can reduce the need for special education placements when children reach school age. For example, earlier detection of hearing deficits sometimes leads to correction of problems before serious language impairments occur. Also, developmental delays caused by premature birth can be addressed through appropriate therapies to help children function at the level of their typically developing peers before they begin school. Social, emotional and behavioural: A key moment in early childhood development occurs around one year of age. This is the time when attachment formation becomes critical. Attachment theory suggests that individual differences in later life functioning and personality are shaped by a child's early experiences with their caregivers. The quality of emotional attachment, or lack of attachment, formed early in life may serve as a model for later relationships. Moral: From age three to five, growth in socioemotional skills includes the formation of peer relationships, gender identification, and the development of a sense of right and wrong. Taking the perspective of another individual is difficult for young children, and events are often interpreted in all-or-nothing terms, with the impact on the child being the fore-most concern. At age five, a child may expect others to share their possessions freely but still be extremely possessive of a favorite toy. This creates no conflict of conscience, because fairness is determined relative to the child's own interests. Between ages five and eight, children enter into a broader peer context and develop enduring friendships. Social comparison is heightened at this time, and taking other people's perspective begins to play a role in how children relate to people, including peers. Middle Childhood (Eight to Twelve Years) Physical: Physical development during middle childhood is less dramatic than in early childhood or adolescence. Growth is slow and steady until the beginning of puberty, when individuals begin to develop at a much quicker pace. The age at which individuals enter puberty varies, but there is evidence of a secular trend - the age at which puberty begins has been decreasing over time. In some individuals, puberty may start as early as age eight or nine. The start of puberty differs across gender and begins earlier in females. Communication: Middle childhood is also a time when children develop competence in interpersonal and social relationships. Children have a growing peer orientation, yet they are strongly influenced by their family. The social skills learned through peer and family relationships, and children's increasing ability to participate in meaningful interpersonal communication, provide a necessary foundation for the challenges of adolescence. Best friends are important at this age, and the skills gained in these relationships may provide the building blocks for healthy adult relationships. Intellectual/cognitive: Intellectual/cognitive development of middle childhood is slow and steady. Children in this stage are building upon skills gained in early childhood and preparing for the next phase of their cognitive development. Children's reasoning is very rule based. Children are learning skills such as classification and forming hypotheses. While they are cognitively more mature now than a few years ago, children in this stage still require concrete, hands-on learning activities. Middle childhood is a time when children can gain enthusiasm for learning and work, for achievement can become a motivating factor as children work toward building competence and self-esteem. Social, emotional and behavioral: For many children, middle childhood is a joyful time of increased independence, broader friendships, and developing interests, such as sports, art, or music. However, a widely recognized shift in school performance begins for many children in third or fourth grade (age eight or nine). The skills required for academic success become more complex. Those students who successfully meet the academic challenges during this period go on to do well, while those who fail to build the necessary skills may fall further behind in later grades. Moral: Recent social trends, including the increased prevalence of school violence, eating disorders, drug use, and depression, affect many upper elementary school students. Thus, there is more pressure on schools to recognise problems in eight-to eleven-year-olds, and to reinforce the social, life skills and morals that will help them continue to develop into healthy adolescents. Adolescence (Twelve to Eighteen Years) Physical: The adolescent years are another period of accelerated growth. Individuals can grow up to four inches and gain eight to ten pounds per year. This growth spurt is most often characterised by two years of fast growth, followed by three or more years of slow, steady growth. By the end of adolescence, individuals may gain a total of seven to nine inches in height and as much as forty or fifty pounds in weight. The timing of this growth spurt is not highly predictable; it varies across both individuals and gender. In general, females begin to develop earlier than do males. Sexual maturation is one of the most significant developments during this time. Like physical development, there is significant variability in the age at which individuals attain sexual maturity. Females tend to mature at about age thirteen, and males at about fifteen. Development during this period is governed by the pituitary gland through the release of the hormones testosterone (males) and estrogen (females). Communication: Communication is advanced by adolescence, although hormones can interfere with the simplest of communication due to lack of patience and mood swings. Adolescents still have smaller vocabularies than adults and experience more difficulties with constructions like the passive voice. Intellectual/cognitive: Adolescence is an important period for cognitive development as well, as it marks a transition in the way in which individuals think and reason about problems and ideas. In early adolescence, individuals can classify and order objects, reverse processes, think logically about concrete objects, and consider more than one perspective at a time. However, at this level of development, adolescents benefit more from direct experiences than from abstract ideas and principles. As adolescents develop more complex cognitive skills, they gain the ability to solve more abstract and hypothetical problems. Elements of this type of thinking may include an increased ability to think in hypothetical ways about abstract ideas, the ability to generate and test hypotheses systematically, the ability to think and plan about the future, and meta-cognition (the ability to reflect on one's thoughts). Social, emotional and behavioral: With so many intense experiences, adolescence is also an important time in emotional development. Mood swings are a characteristic of adolescence. While often attributed to hormones, mood swings can also be understood as a logical reaction to the social, physical, and cognitive changes facing adolescents, and there is often a struggle with issues of self-esteem. As individuals search for identity, they confront the challenge of matching who they want to become with what is socially desirable. In this context, adolescents often exhibit bizarre and/or contradictory behaviors. The search for identity, the concern adolescents have about whether they are normal and variable moods and low self-esteem all work together to produce wildly fluctuating behavior. The impact of the media and societal expectations on adolescent development has been far-reaching. Young people are bombarded by images of violence, sex, and unattainable standards of beauty. This exposure, combined with the social, emotional, and physical changes facing adolescents, has contributed to an increase in school violence, teen sexuality, and eating disorders. The onset of many psychological disorders, such as depression, other mood disorders, and schizophrenia, is also common at this time of life. Morals: As individuals enter adolescence, they are confronted by a diverse number of changes all at one time. Not only are they undergoing significant physical and cognitive growth, but they are also encountering new situations, responsibilities, and people. Entry into secondary school throws students into environments with many new people, responsibilities, and expectations. While this transition can be frightening, it also represents an exciting step toward independence. Adolescents are trying on new roles, new ways of thinking and behaving, and they are exploring different ideas and values. Adolescence is characterized by a conflict between identity and role confusion. During this period, individuals evolve their own self-concepts within the peer context. In their attempts to become more independent adolescents often rely on their peer group for direction regarding what is normal and accepted. They begin to pull away from reliance on their family as a source of identity and may encounter conflicts between their family and their growing peer-group relationships. 1.2 Explain the difference between sequence of development and rate of development and rate of development and why the difference is important. The Sequential development is the sequence of development. This means that you must finish with one area of development before you move onto the next one. The cephalocaudle principle believes that development moves from the head downwards. This is to do with small children and understands that infants get full control of their heads, then arms then finally feet, from the top down. This is also seen later on and the understanding is that the spinal cord needs to develop properly before other areas such as the hands and feet and then fingers and toes develop. This is sequential and you cannot skip sequences or you will not be fully developed. The rate of development is the pace that a child develops at; this can be the pace within each sequence or the pace overall and goes to cover all the set areas or periods in between or altogether in the sequences. These principals run through all areas of development from mental to physical to emotional, no matter what the age of the child. If one is skipped or is slow it can be a cause for concern and may lead to a child being given a special recommendation or having a special need in or outside school. Growth and development are a continuous process and are different for all individuals. The rates all move from the general to the specific, for example from moving a hand in any direction to grasping a pencil or catching a ball. So the variation is to do with the building blocks of development, which is sequential development versus the rate or the speed of development which is the rate of development. Both are obviously interlinked. It is important to recognize the difference between the sequence and rate of a child’s development so children/young people are identified who need help or are at risk. Children develop at different rates, information and sources we receive are only guidelines. These help us to monitor what children can and can't do at certain stages in their lives. It will also help us to plan effectively to ensure they get the attention they need, in the areas in which they find challenging. Physical development follows a definite sequence an example of this would be that a baby would have to first learn how to hold his/her own head up before they would be able to sit with just its lower back supported. While the sequences are common amongst most children what often changes is the rate in which they develop the skills. It is important to monitor a child's sequence and rate of development in order for us to determine the kind of help he/she will need and of whom they will need to be referred too. 2. Understand the factors that influence children and young people’s development and how these affect practice. 3.2 Explain how children and young people’s development is influenced by a range of personal factors. Personal factors include: * Family status * Health status * Disability * Sensory impairment * Learning difficulties Family Status While children are influenced by many things, there are no stronger influences that that of their parents as they are usually their child’s first playmates and while the world expands with each passing year, parental influence is still one of the greatest factors in determining the ways in which a child will grow and develop. Naturally parents will want to see their children do well. Sometimes though in an effort to keep their children safe parents inadvertently hold their children back from exploring the world around them, lessening their chances to learn and progress. While it is understandable to want to shelter children from harm, parents who are over protective can sometimes limit their child’s potential. Ideally children should be given increasing amounts of freedom as they grow older and mature, allowing them to gradually learn new things and meet new people which in turn increases their physical, emotional and social development. However there are many examples of the kind of influences that affect children and young people’s development, parents going through a marriage breakdown, separation and divorce proceedings can be very traumatic for a child. Children of one parent families may suffer as a single parent may not work or conversely work long hours, leaving the child with little support and open to bullying, or possibly no male role model to look up too. Children may become part of a step family, where new partners may have children of their own from a previous relationship. This could lead to conflict or friction between the children and unhappiness for the child being picked on, leading to low self-esteem, lack of confidence in their own abilities. To a child a step family would be a problem because they will be just getting to know this new step parent and the child may become insecure due to them thinking that this step parent is trying to replace their real parent. Parents try to teach their children values and skills also including their beliefs for later on in life this would be the difference between right and wrong, the use of bad/foul language and the correct way to behave etc. Health Status Dental and hospital x-rays when pregnant can harm the growth and development of an unborn child. The inside effects on the factors of environment are drugs, alcohol, taking medication during pregnancy, smoking and poor diet. Smoking, drug taking and drinking will damage the insides of the human body because of the substances that are inside these factors. Taking medication when pregnant may harm the baby as well as the mother because during pregnancy the mother does tend to be weaker than normal. The factors of genetics are that characteristics are passed on from the biological parents to the child these characteristics include the skin, eye and hair colour the height of the child and facial features also sometimes the ability to run fast. Illnesses can also be passed on such as cystic fibrosis, haemophilia, Parkinson’s, Alzheimer’s, luntingdons cohorea. The tendency towards other conditions like asthma, eczema, diabetes, hearing and visual impairments, glucoma, heart disease or a heart murmur can seem to be inherited. Proper nutrition can have a direct impact on a child's development both physically and psychologically. Well balanced nutrition is related to functional outcomes for children as they get older; unhealthy eating can lead to weight gain and other negative effects if the child does not learn how to eat healthy early in life. The increased duration and intensity of the exposures to healthy eating habits, through both hands-on learning and leading by example, can make a positive impact on a child's development. The factors of health are good health which is a healthy balanced diet which will ensure the growth and development. A large intake food can lead to obesity and a small quantity of food can lead to anorexia these will both affect the growth and development of the human body. Good health such as good speech, eyesight, hearing, keeping fit and a generally good life style will benefit the growth and development that are body’s go through where as bad speech, bad skin, bad hearing, bad eyesight, no exercise, always being ill, not eating properly and inherited disease can have huge effects on the body’s growth and development. Being ill all the time will have huge effects on children later in life as they will be missing a lot of school and therefore all the areas of development are affected, through missing school children will miss opportunities to learn, develop and build on skills that maybe useful later on. Young children and toddlers are especially sensitive to the effects of secondhand smoke, due to the fact that their bodies are still growing and developing and they breathe faster than adults and therefore may inhale more smoke. Research has shown that children, who grow up in a smoky household, where one or both parents smoke, have twice the amount of respiratory and lung disorders, and in some cases they even have to be hospitalised. These children are usually absent from school more often than children who grow up in a smoke-free home and some studies have even suggested that children who are exposed to passive smoking are more likely to have behavioural problems and that they may not develop mentally as quickly as other children. More recent studies have shown that exposure to passive smoking affects a child's behaviour and their learning abilities. Children from smoking homes scored lower in maths, reading, logic and reasoning tests and showed a more difficult and conflictive attitude towards their teachers and peers. Sensory Impairment A few of the many factors that may have an effect on speech development in children, according to Chen, include: lack of stimulation, delayed motor skills, inadequate awareness of communication, reduced hearing, frequent moving or changes in environment, exposure to many different languages and high anxiety. For visually impaired children, the process of adapting to society will differ from that of normally sighted children. Many social clues take the form of body language and therefore require vision in order to be understood, so may be only partially or not at all accessible. Congenitally blind children are not aware of the reactions from others to their own body language unless they are specifically taught. Partially sighted children who have behavioural adaptations to make their sight more functional may communicate body language that implies feelings that they are not actually experiencing. Auditory memory skills may play a different role in language development which may lead to a skewed perception of the ability to use language in comparison to sighted children. Verbal reasoning skills appear to lag behind auditory memory skills that can cause problems when having to change topics quickly or when incorporating broader meanings of a word, particularly in social situations. Learning Difficulties Children or young people who have a general learning disability are aware of what goes on around them. However, their ability to understand and communicate may be limited, and they can find it hard to express themselves. Speech problems can make it even harder to make other people understand their feelings and needs. They can become frustrated and upset by their own limitations. When they compare themselves to other children, they can feel sad or angry and think badly of themselves. Brothers and sisters may be affected in a number of ways. They may feel jealous of the attention given to their disabled brother or sister or embarrassed by their behaviour. They may even be teased at school. Quite often they can feel personally responsible for their disabled sibling or their distressed parent. 3.3 Explain how children and young people’s development is influenced by a range of external factors * Poverty and deprivation/living environment * Family environment and background * Personal choices * Looked after/care status * Education Poverty and deprivation The factors of the environment are the way in which we live which has huge effects on our lifestyle and the behaviour we act. The outside effects are in some inner cities such as the U.K which has become unpleasant to live in due to the increase of air pollution from vehicle exhausts, factories, littering, tipping etc. Other factors of the environment are poverty and unemployment, poor living conditions for those who are on low incomes, discrimination against ethnic or disabled people is reduced with the introduction of the relevant statutes e.g. improvements in access for people with impaired mobility and equal opportunities for all. The agricultural environment also imposes problems for families which have unemployment or have low incomes so transport and housing will be difficult to secure, radiation from atomic bomb explosions that happened years ago, nuclear power stations and x-rays and also climate changes with this environment lifestyle it will affect the growth and development. Income plays a big part in everyday life this will affect personal development. People who live in poverty and have poor housing and diet because this is all that they can afford are more likely to suffer ill health; these people are unlikely to get involved in leisure activities. People on low income will notice that this has a dramatic effect on day to day life e.g. cannot pay for transport, not very well dressed and it’s hard to fund for new clothes and not able to get the latest technology e.g. if a child has homework a computer would help with this especially in high school and collage etc. Family environment and background A parent’s attitude towards education and standards of education can have a detrimental effect on a child’s development. If the parents had a bad experience of the education, the attitude and feelings towards education can influence their child’s attitude. In some cultures the boy’s opinions are valued more than the girl’s but the girl’s opinion doesn’t matter. People have different sexualities such as being gay, lesbian and bisexual and some people frown upon this. Education in school, on visits or travelling etc., is given to a child will help the child to reach their potential by using an appropriate stimulation, by giving children opportunities and by encouraging a positive self-image. There is a variety of cultures and in these cultures their religious beliefs and their way of life can affect development. Some cultures arrange marriages for their offspring, some cultures forbid eating certain foods and some have a certain dress code and have to cover up most of the body where as others are not about what parts of the body that you can or cannot show. Personal choices No exercise, smoking, drinking alcohol, taking drugs or not eating properly (amongst other bad choices) can have huge effects on the body’s growth and development. Being ill as a result of poor personal choices will have huge effects on children later in life as they will be missing a lot of school and therefore all the areas of development are affected, through missing school children will miss opportunities to learn, develop and build on skills that maybe useful later on. Poor behavioural choices will also affect children’s development, educationally and socially. Looked after/care status Children and young people become looked after by local authorities mainly because their parents are unable to care for them for a variety of reasons. They may be the victims of physical, sexual or emotional abuse or neglect, or their parents may be overwhelmed by material and emotional problems and unable to cope. Some young people may experience difficulties as they grow up – getting into trouble at home, in their neighbourhood or at school. Other young people may need special help with physical disabilities or mental health problems. The child or young person’s development, whilst being a LAC may include self-care skills (personal hygiene, diet and health, including sexual health); practical skills (budgeting, shopping, cooking and cleaning); and interpersonal skills (managing a range of formal and informal relationships). Equal importance to practical, emotional and interpersonal skills – not just, as in the past, practical independence training for young people to manage on their own during adolescence. Education Education extends beyond traditional schooling. The first three years of life are possibly the most important to a child's developing brain. During this time, stimulation and interaction with parents and other children is essential. Young children require a rich environment in which to interact and explore. Actively engaging all of his senses stimulates brain cells and encourages growth. A young child can learn by touching, and if denied sources of stimulation, mental growth stagnates. 3.4 Explain how theories of development and frameworks to support development influence current practice. Theories of development: * Cognitive (Piaget) * Psychoanalytic (Freud) * Humanist (Maslow) * Social Learning (Bandura) * Operant Conditioning (Skinner) * Behaviourist (Watson) Frameworks that support development: social pedagogy. Cognitive Theories (Piaget) Cognitive theories of psychology are focused on internal states, such as motivation, problem solving, decision-making, thinking and attention. The psychologist and philosopher Jean Piaget believed in two basic principles relating to moral education: that children develop moral ideas in stages and that children create their conceptions of the world. Piaget's theory of cognitive development is a comprehensive theory about the nature and development of human intelligence first developed by Jean Piaget. It is primarily known as a developmental stage theory, but in fact, it deals with the nature of knowledge itself and how humans come gradually to acquire it, construct it, and use it. Moreover, Piaget claims the idea that cognitive development is at the centre of human organism and language is contingent on cognitive development. According to Piaget, "the child is someone who constructs his own moral world view, who forms ideas about right and wrong, and fair and unfair, that are not the direct product of adult teaching and that are often maintained in the face of adult wishes to the contrary". How this theory influences current practice over time, Piaget provides a theory of conceptual change that focuses on the development of schemata from childhood to maturity. Piaget provides a characterization of children's knowledge at four stages of maturity, termed sensi-motor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational. At each successive stage, more structures become available to children to make sense of experience. For example, Piaget demonstrates that children cannot perform controlled experiments with variables, or reason with ratios, before the formal operational stage. Prior knowledge, in the form of structural schemata, thus play a determining role in how children make sense of interactive experience. In Piaget's account of conceptual change, knowledge grows by reformulation. Piaget identifies a set of invariant change functions, which are innate, universal, and age independent. These are assimilation, accommodation, and equilibration. Assimilation increases knowledge while preserving of structure, by integrating information into existing schemata. Accommodation increases knowledge by modifying structure to account for new experience. For Piaget, the critical episodes in learning occur when a tension arises between assimilation and accommodation, and neither mechanism can succeed on its own. Equilibration coordinates assimilation and accommodation, allowing the learner to craft a new, more coherent balance between schemata and sensory evidence. Reformulation does not replace prior knowledge, but rather differentiates and integrates prior knowledge into a more coherent whole. Piaget influences educators not only by his theory, but also by his method. He spent long hours coming to know children's modes of thinking (using the clinical interview, discussed later). After Piaget, we must assume that children will make sense of experience using their own schemata. Yet, we also must carefully interview children, seeking an understanding of their form of coherence. Most followers of Piaget are constructivists who cultivate a deep appreciation of children's sense-making, and design interactive experiences accordingly. Piaget generated many innovative task-settings in which children become involved in active manipulation of physical objects. Trying to achieve a goal in physical task can promote conflict between assimilation and accommodation in the accompanying psychological task. Moreover, alternative physical actions can suggest different conceptual operations, and thus opportunities that arise in physical activity can inspire mental restructuring. Using these insights, Kuhn et al. (1988) shows that children can learn to coordinate theory and evidence in a period of several weeks if provided with engaging, playful, thought-provoking tasks. Harel & Papert (1991) extend this point by suggesting that the best tasks for constructing ideas are those in which children have to build something that works. While "construction" and "constructivism" are not necessarily linked, they go well together. Dewey's theory, discussed in the next section, also identifies designing, making, and tinkering real things as critical to conceptual change. In summary, Piaget suggests that learners overcome the paradox of continuity with the help of slow, maturational processes that operate when doing a task provokes conflict between accommodation and assimilation, and support for equilibration between these. He suggests that designers of interactive experiences invest the empirical effort needed to appreciate learner's perspective. From an understanding of this perspective, one can design tasks that are likely both to attract learners, to provoke disequilibration, and to support the necessary but difficult work of knowledge reformulation. Tasks should be simple and direct, with individual concrete operations mapping closely to the conceptual operations at stake. Experience in which learners construct a working physical arrangement are often powerful for constructing knowledge; for example, the best way to progress past your prior understanding of a painting might be to try to paint one like it. Psychoanalytic (Freud -1964) Psychoanalysis is an extremely involved process that takes place over the course of a number of years. The analyst and the patient develop an intimate relationship, which includes "transference," which is a process in which the patient develops a sort of parent-child relationship with the analyst, and therefore transfers the patient's old emotions with his or her actual parents onto the analyst. This makes for an extremely touchy situation in which the analyst has a huge amount of influence, which is necessary but requires care and restraint. Freud thought that all neuroses were a result of repressions, and so he sought to use his influence as an analyst to access and help the patient to access the relevant issues in the unconscious. Freud (1964) saw the unresolved Oedipal complex as the most universal, as well as most important, repression (in males). (Freud's theory was admittedly less developed for women, as noted by his statement "That [the eros and sexual development] of males is the more straightforward and the more understandable..." [Freud,1953a, p.207]) Freud's theory holds that males, around the age of three or four, enter into sexual fantasies about their mothers, including fantasies about taking their fathers' places. The father is pictured as threatening the boy with castration as punishment for his early masturbation fantasies and showing off of his penis, which initially seems impossible to the boy, until the realization of the lack of a penis in females. This brings on the "castration complex," which entails long term sexual repression. The question of how to get a (male) patient to accept this about himself, however, was and is an entirely different problem. Freud (1953a) saw dreams as the major source of insight into the unconscious. Dream interpretation is a very imperfect science, as there are many levels of distortion between the patient's unconscious and the analyst's interpretation. The dream is formed to fulfill some unconscious wish that is normally repressed. The dream, however, is not literal, it is symbolic. The patient must recount his or her memory of the dream (another distortion) before the analyst can even begin to trace it to its unconscious root. The other main technique in Freudian analysis is the use of free association, in which patients essentially speak what is on their minds, "associating" one topic with the next. This has the advantage that the analyst may act as observer and listener without using his or her influence (from transference, etc.) to lead the patient in any specific direction. Each one of the two people in the psychoanalytic relationship, hopefully, will eventually meet at the same conclusion as to the cause of the problem (Freud, 1964). Humanist Theory (Maslow) Maslow's understanding of human motivation has had an important influence in the fields of nursing and allied health. The needs hierarchy provides a useful framework for understanding patients, and this framework has been incorporated into several important theories of medical and nursing care. One major approach to nursing theory has been described as a "needs" approach, and it relies on Maslow's need hierarchy as well as the developmental theories of Erik Erikson. Needs-oriented theories emphasize the nurse's role in helping the patient to meet his or her physiological and psychosocial needs. Although more recent theories have moved away from this position, the needs hierarchy has been useful in helping care providers look for the "big picture" of a given patient's situation. A description of Maslow's needs hierarchy is still included in many textbooks for students of nursing and allied health. As the realities of health care in a managed care environment have affected medical professionals, Maslow's theory has also found a role in human resource management for health care. The needs hierarchy offers one approach to such human resource issues as quality assurance, employee burnout, and job satisfaction. By understanding the larger set of needs that health care providers bring to their professions, human resource managers can do a better job of coping with and planning for problems that arise in the medical workplace. Maslow's ideas remain influential because they make sense of a certain range of human behavior. On the other hand, Maslow's emphasis on a strict hierarchical ordering of human needs has not held up well in other respects because it has never been empirically substantiated. The connections between motivation and external behavior in human beings are more complex than Maslow's theory allows. People strive to satisfy simultaneous needs for love, safety, self-esteem, etc. Moreover, people who have their "lower" needs met in a satisfactory fashion do not invariably seek the fulfilment of "higher" needs, as the behavior of many wealthy or famous individuals indicates. In addition, the drive to satisfy "higher" needs takes precedence over "lower" needs more frequently than Maslow thought. In sum, human beings are influenced by a wide range of needs and motives. For some people, love, safety, and security are paramount values, while others are motivated by desires for power and dominance. Lastly, human beings are shaped to a considerable extent by their cultures, and cultures differ widely in the sets of values that they emphasize and transmit to their members. For example, the very notion of a "self" is more consistently individualistic in Western societies, whereas it incorporates family relationships in Eastern cultures. Maslow's hierarchy of needs reflects the values of twentieth-century Western middle-class males; it is not culture-neutral and is therefore not universally applicable to all periods of human history or to all contemporary societies. Social Learning (Bandura) The social learning theory proposed by Albert Bandura has become perhaps the most influential theory of learning and development. While rooted in many of the basic concepts of traditional learning theory, Bandura believed that direct reinforcement could not account for all types of learning. His theory added a social element, arguing that people can learn new information and behaviors by watching other people. Known as observational learning (or modeling), this type of learning can be used to explain a wide variety of behaviors. Basic Social Learning Concepts There are three core concepts at the heart of social learning theory. First is the idea that people can learn through observation. Next is the idea that internal mental states are an essential part of this process. Finally, this theory recognizes that just because something has been learned, it does not mean that it will result in a change in behavior. Let's explore each of these concepts in greater depth. 1. People can learn through observation. Observational Learning In his famous "Bobo doll" studies, Bandura demonstrated that children learn and imitate behaviors they have observed in other people. The children in Bandura’s studies observed an adult acting violently toward a Bobo doll. When the children were later allowed to play in a room with the Bobo doll, they began to imitate the aggressive actions they had previously observed. Operant Conditioning (Skinner) The Harvard psychologist B.F. Skinner pioneered the field of behaviorism in the late 1930s and continued to contribute to it through the mid-1970s. Operant conditioning is one of the key concepts of this school of psychology. Skinner called his brand of conditioning operant conditioning to distinguish it from the conditioning theory developed by the Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov, now referred to as classical conditioning. Classical conditioning primarily concerned itself with reflexive or unlearned behavior such as the jerking of a knee upon being tapped with a hammer. In a famous experiment, Pavlov training dogs to salivate in expectation of food at the sound of a bell. Operant conditioning, however, deals with learned, not reflexive behavior; it works by reinforcing (rewarding) and punishing behavior based on the consequences it produces. Reinforcement is used to increase the probability that behavior will occur in the future, whereas punishment aims to decrease that probability. In addition, the process of removing reinforcement from an act is called extinction. Organizational management literature often refers to operant conditioning as part of reinforcement theory and work behavior modification. Unlike other theories of management and motivation, operant conditioning does not rely on attitudes, beliefs, intentions, and motivation for predicting and influencing behavior, although Skinner and other behaviorists do not suggest that these factors do not exist. Instead, they posit that these notions find their genesis in external conditions and reinforcement. Hence, organizational management theorists who adopt this approach look to external factors—the environment—to explain and influence behavior within the work place. For example, this approach to management views motivation as a product of workers' environments, not as an internal quality of each individual worker's psychological makeup. Therefore, employees are highly motivated because that quality is reinforced with pay raises, promotions, etc. that employees find desirable. Since most of the behavior taking place in a business is learned rather than reflexive, operant conditioning can be applied to organizational management. Workers learn various kinds of behavior before and after joining a company, and they encounter a host of stimuli in a company setting that can cause them to behave in certain ways with certain consequences. These kinds of behaviors are rewarded and punished depending on their value to a company. The stimuli in the workplace include schedules, corporate structures, company policies, telephone calls, managers, and so on. The consequences of work-place behavior include approval or disapproval from managers and coworkers, promotions, demotions, pay increases, etc. When consequences are directly linked to certain kinds of behavior, they are contingent on these kinds of behavior. The classic example is touching a hot stove and experiencing the immediate consequence of being burned. However, most consequences in a company are only partially contingent on the behavior (performance) of employees, and thus there are often entire networks of relationships between employee behavior and its consequences. These relationships are called schedules of reinforcement, and applying operant conditioning to the work place means controlling these schedules. Reinforcement schedules are either continuous or intermittent, or partial. Continuous reinforcement schedules are those situations in which every occurrence of an act is reinforced. In contrast, intermittent schedules are those situations in which only some instances of an act are reinforced. Continuous reinforcement schedules generally facilitate new learning or the acquisition of new skills at the fastest rate. New employees learning how to process customer orders, for example, will learn the proper procedure the fastest if they are reinforced every time they take an order correctly. However, if a continuous schedule is suspended outright after being implemented for any substantial period, the behavior being reinforced might stop altogether. In addition, after a certain kind of behavior has been learned, it will occur more often if reinforced intermittently. Hence, employees who have learned the proper procedure for taking customer orders have the greatest likelihood of continuing to do so correctly if managers adopt an intermittent schedule after the behavior has been learned. Moreover, reinforcement can be positive (adding something new, such as a raise or a promotion) or negative (the removal of something from the work environment, such as constant supervision) after new employees demonstrate they have sufficiently learned their jobs. Negative reinforcement, however, should not be confused with punishment, which involves undesirable or aversive consequences and decreases the probability of an act being repeated. Negative reinforcement, rather, is a kind of a reward that removes constraints or other elements from the work environment to encourage employee behavior. Events or actions that increase the probability that certain behavior will occur in the future are called reinforcers, which can be divided into primary and secondary reinforcers. Primary reinforcers are things such as food, water, and shelter that are rewarding all by themselves, while secondary reinforcers are things such as money that have a reinforcing effect because of their relationship with primary reinforcers (for example, money can buy food, etc.). However, reinforcers may not always succeed in reinforcing behavior. If a person is not thirsty, for example, water may not serve as an effective reinforcer. Because some behavior is so complex that it does not occur all at once, managers must reinforce progressive approximations of the desired behavior. This process begins with the reinforcement of behavior that may barely resemble the desired behavior, using a continuous reinforcement schedule with a progressive standard. Consequently, behavior must show improvement or greater approximation of the desired behavior to receive reinforcement as time goes on. When managers wish to discourage certain kinds of behavior or decrease the probability of their occurrence, they can implement a schedule of punishment along the lines of a schedule of reinforcement. Punishment involves the application of undesirable consequences or the removal of positive consequences following undesired behavior. However, negative consequences must be meted out with consideration of how it will affect individual workers, because what constitutes punishment for one worker may not for another. Ultimately, these consequences or stimuli must be linked to the undesired behavior and decrease the probability of it reoccurring in order for them to constitute punishment in the technical sense of the operant conditioning approach. Moreover, effective punishment usually embodies the following qualities: it is consistent, immediate, impersonal, and contingent on specific behavior. Finally, punishment should be informative—letting employees know why they are being punished—and employees should recognize that future punishment can be avoided by refraining from the undesired behavior. Watson’s work was based on the experiments of Ivan Pavlov, who had studied animals’ responses to conditioning. In Pavlov’s best-known experiment, he rang a bell as he fed some dogs several meals. Each time the dogs heard the bell they knew that a meal was coming, and they would begin to salivate. Pavlov then rang the bell without bringing food, but the dogs still salivated. They had been “conditioned” to salivate at the sound of a bell. Pavlov believed, as Watson was later to emphasize, that humans react to stimuli in the same way. Behaviorism originated in the field of psychology, but it has had a much wider influence. Its concepts and methods are used in education, and many education courses at college are based on the same assumptions about man as behaviorism. Behaviorism has infiltrated sociology, in the form of sociobiology, the belief that moral values are rooted in biology. What are the presuppositions of behaviorism' 1. Behaviorism is naturalistic. This means that the material world is the ultimate reality, and everything can be explained in terms of natural laws. Man has no soul and no mind, only a brain that responds to external stimuli. 2. Behaviorism teaches that man is nothing more than a machine that responds to conditioning. One writer has summarized behaviorism in this way: “The central tenet of behaviorism is that thoughts, feelings, and intentions, mental processes all, do not determine what we do. Our behavior is the product of our conditioning. We are biological machines and do not consciously act; rather we react to stimuli.“1 The idea that men are “biological machines” whose minds do not have any influence on their actions is contrary to the biblical view that man is the very image of God – the image of a creative, planning, thinking God. In fact, Skinner goes so far as to say that the mind and mental processes are “metaphors and fictions” and that “behavior is simply part of the biology of the organism.“2 Skinner also recognizes that his view strips man of his “freedom and dignity,” but insists that man as a spiritual being does not exist. 3. Consistently, behaviorism teaches that we are not responsible for our actions. If we are mere machines, without minds or souls, reacting to stimuli and operating on our environment to attain certain ends, then anything we do is inevitable. Sociobiology, a type of behaviorism, compares man to a computer: Garbage in, garbage out. This also conflicts with a Christian worldview. Our past experiences and our environment do affect the way we act, of course, but these factors cannot account for everything we do. The Bible teaches that we are basically covenantal creatures, not biological creatures. Our nearest environment is God Himself, and we respond most fundamentally to Him. We respond either in obedience to or rebellion against His Word. 4. Behaviorism is manipulative. It seeks not merely to understand human behavior, but to predict and control it. From his theories, Skinner developed the idea of “shaping.” By controlling rewards and punishments, you can shape the behavior of another person. Social pedagogy Social pedagogy has four core aims that are closely linked: well-being and happiness, holistic learning, relationship, and empowerment. Well-being and happiness: The overarching aim of all social pedagogic practice is to provide well-being and happiness, not on a short-term needs-focused basis, but sustainably, through a rights-based approach. While the terms 'well-being' and 'happiness' are sometimes seen as one and the same, in our understanding they are notionally different: happiness describes a present state whereas well-being describes as a long-lasting sense of physical, mental, emotional and social well-being. In combination we can get a holistic view of a person's well-being and happiness. Importantly, well-being and happiness are very individual and subjective: what makes us happy is very different from person to person. As a result social pedagogic practice is very context-specific and highly responsive to the individual rather than adopting a one-size-fits-all approach. Holistic learning: 'Learning is the pleasant anticipation of one's self', according to the German philosopher Sloterdijk. In this sense, holistic learning mirrors the aim of well-being and happiness - it must be seen as contributing to, or enhancing, our well-being. Learning is more than what happens at school, it is a holistic process of realizing our own potential for learning and growth, which can take place in every situation that offers a learning opportunity. Holistic learning is a life-long process involving 'head, heart, and hands' (Pestalozzi). Social pedagogy is about creating learning opportunities, so that people get a sense of their own potential and how they have developed. As we are all unique, so is our potential for learning and our way of learning and development. Relationship: Central to achieving these two aims is the pedagogic relationship. Through the supportive relationship with the social pedagogue a person can experience that someone cares for and about them, that they can trust somebody. This is about giving them the social skills to be able to build strong positive relationships with others. Therefore the pedagogic relationship must be a personal relationship between human beings - social pedagogues make use of their personality and have to be authentic in the relationship, which is not the same as sharing private matters. So the pedagogic relationship is professional and personal at the same time, thus requiring from the social pedagogue to be constantly reflective. Empowerment: Alongside the relationship, empowerment is crucial in order to ensure that we get a sense of control over our life, feel involved in decisions affecting us, and are able to make sense of our own universe. Empowerment also means that we are able to take on ownership and responsibility for our own learning and our own well-being and happiness, as well as our relationship with the community. Social pedagogy is therefore about supporting people's empowerment, their independence as well as interdependence. Positive Experiences: In order to realize these core aims, social pedagogy has to be about providing positive experiences. The power of experiencing something positive - something that makes us happy, something we have achieved, a new skill we have learned, the caring support from someone else - has a double impact: it raises our self-confidence and feeling of self-worth, so it reinforces our sense of well-being, of learning, of being able to form a strong relationship, or of feeling empowered; and by strengthening our positives we also improve our weak sides - negative notions about our self-fade away... Conclusions: Social pedagogy offers a conceptual framework that can help guide professional practice. As an academic discipline, social pedagogy uses related research, theories and concepts from other sciences such as sociology, psychology, education or philosophy to ensure the holistic perspective. This means that in realizing those core aims there is a lot of inspiration to be taken from what research and concepts tell us about related areas. All four aims point at the fact that social pedagogy is about process. Well-being and happiness, holistic learning, relationship, empowerment - none of these is a product that, once achieved, can be forgotten. This is why it is important to perceive them as fundamental human rights that we all constantly need to work on if we want to ensure that nobody's rights are violated or neglected. 3 Understand how to monitor children and young people’s development and interventions that should take place if this is not following the expected pattern. 3.1 Explain how to monitor children and young people’s development using different methods. Summative methods of assessment are one way of monitoring children and young people’s development. This is formal testing; SATs and CATs record a child’s academic attainment as well as intellectual development. Formative methods such as different child observational methods, target child, tick box checklists, and time sampling methods can be used in different settings and for different purposes by different people. Teaching assistants may be asked to observe a child whose development is causing concern and feedback to the teacher. The observations may be done by using a teacher’s checklist. It is important to always record and feedback to parents about the outcome of your findings (via the teacher or according to your role). Observations can then be compared against SATs or other test results against the expected averages milestones: expected developmental age statistics, child’s target grades, and then use feedback from parents, compare with that of the child’s class teacher, who can then inform and discuss any issues with the SENCo in school. The SENCo would then look if any school action / school action plus / SEN interventions are required. With an older child it may be necessary to involve him / her (according to age and understanding) in any assessment of their development: recording their feelings wishes and views in an IEP, check you are observing them in different contexts (depending on which areas of their development you are looking at - for example social development observe in playground, in group and individual settings). Other aspects should also be taken into account when monitoring development: the child or young person’s culture, EAL, poverty, if the child or young person is a traveller, whether there have been and CP issues with the child or family unit they are part of, as this can be a prevention to correct development. It is also important that consideration is taken in areas such as EAL: although a young person may have EAL needs, these may not be creating delayed development (i.e. he / she may not be delayed in areas of their development such as when using their first language). 3.2 Explain the reasons why children and young people’s development may not follow the expected pattern. There are a number of factors that affect the growth and development of children and young people. Children and young people are influenced by physical factors, environmental factors, social and emotional factors, economical factors.   Social and Emotional: Family is a big influence in a child’s development. Parents have a big role by providing care and guidance for their development .Unfortunately some families cannot promoting the development of child because of the conflict among the parents. Many times a   single parent has difficulties in boosting a better development in children and young people. Environmental factors: if a child’s house is maintained in a proper way it negatively affects their developments. If a house does not have proper heating condition   and   has dampness, it may cause illness to child, like, respiratory illness, bronchitis, eczema. Parents having low income tend to live in   poor neighbourhood with not enough   space to live   and not easy access to shops. Such parents have stress in their life that is why they   cannot promote a better development in children and young people's .         Physical factors:   Diet an important factor in boosting good development in children and young people. Results shows   that   taking good nutritious food contributes to better achievements in their life.   Research found that emotional development is influenced and supported by balance diet. We would be good having a good supplements of vitamins through food .Families have low income cannot promote   a good nutritious diet for children and young people.             At times chronic illness affects their development. Some conditions even affect the motor skill development. Asthma affects lungs, they cannot breath properly. They are allergic to dust or pollen. My friend’s kid suffers from asthma. At school, he would like to take part in physical activities but he cannot   because of his condition, this affects their day to day life. 3.3 Explain how disability may affect development. 3.4 Explain how different types of interventions can promote positive outcomes for children and young people where development is not following the expected pattern. 4 Understand the importance of early intervention to support the speech, anguage and communication needs of children and young people. Bibliography * Allen, K. Eileen, and Marotz, Lynne R. 1989. Developmental Profiles: Birth to Six. Albany, NY: Delmar. * Bowman, Barbara T.; Donovan, M. Suzanne; and Burns, M. Susan, eds. 2001. Eager To Learn: Educating Our Preschoolers. Washington DC: National Academy Press. * Bransford, John D.; Brown, Ann L.; and Cocking, Rodney R., eds. 1999. How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School. Washington DC: National Academy Press. * Chall, Jeanne S.; Jacobs, Vicki A.; and Baldwin, Luke E. 1990. The Reading Crisis: Why Poor Children Fall Behind. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. * Collins, W. Andrew, ed. 1984. Development During Middle Childhood: The Years From Six to Twelve. Washington DC: National Academy Press. * Goldberg, Susan; Muir, Roy; and Kerr, John, eds. 1995. Attachment Theory: Social, Develop-mental, and Clinical Perspectives. Hillsdale: Analytic Press. * Gullotta, Thomas P.; Adams, Gerald R.; and Markstrom, Carol A. 2000. The Adolescent Experience, 4th edition. San Diego: Academic Press. * Knowles, Trudy, and Brown, Dave F. 2000. What Every Middle School Teacher Should Know. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann. * Newman, Phillip R., and Newman, Barbara M. 1997. Childhood and Adolescence. Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole. * Orenstein, Peggy. 1994. School Girls: Young Women, Self-Esteem, and the Confidence Gap. New York: Anchor Books. * Pipher, Mary B. 1994. Reviving Ophelia: Saving the Selves of Adolescent Girls. New York: Putnam. * Shonkoff, Jack P., and Phillips, Deborah A., eds. 2001. From Neurons to Neighborhoods: The Science of Early Childhood Development. Washington, DC: National Academy Press. * Wolman, Benjamin B. 1998. Adolescence: Biological and Psychosocial Perspectives. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. * Internet Resource * U.S. Department of Education. 1998. "Goals 2000: Reforming Education to Improve Student Achievement." www.ed.gov/pubs/G2KReforming/ Sponsored Links References * World Health Organization; Early Child Development; August 2009 * Research Triangle Institute; Factors in Child Development: Part I: Personal Characteristics and Parental Behavior; Betty Rintoul, et al. * "Environmental Health Perspectives"; Environmental Factors Influencing Growth and Pubertal Development; H. A. Delemarre-van de Waal; July 1993 * Centre for Community Child Health: The Underlying Factors Affecting Child Health and Development and Family Functioning