Child_Development

Children’s Care, Learning and Development – Level 3 Child Development Project: Birth – 16 years. There are five main areas of child development: Physical development, cognitive development, language development, emotional development and social development. Right from birth, each person has needs that require to be met in all the areas: for example a new born baby requires to be fed, kept warm, sleep, and can already recognise their mother’s voice and smell. They use crying as a means of letting us know that they need something such as changing or feeding or even a cuddle. As this baby becomes older, they may begin to let us know what they want by pointing at objects and things and will eventually will reach an age where they can communicate their needs through their voice as their language has developed. Developmental norms are a guide to the age and stage a baby/child should be at. Each baby/child is individual however and will reach their “milestones” in their own time- the developmental norms are not set in stone and simply act as a rough guide to where a baby/child should be. Parents and carers can often become extremely anxious when they think that their baby/child is not reaching their milestones at the right age but it is very important to remember that many things can affect a child’s performance including tiredness and illness. Physical development refers to the way in which the body is able to move with increasing skill and complexity. There are two areas of physical development: Gross motor skills: movements using the large muscles in the body such as walking. Fines motor skill which can further be broken down into two parts: Gross manipulative skills: such as throwing and catching- they usually involve single limb movements. Fine manipulative skills: such as writing- they involve precise use of the hands and fingers. At birth, gross motor skills present may be the ability to lie on their backs with their head to one side. Fine motor skills may include holding their thumbs tucked under their fingers. By six months, babies may be able to roll over onto their stomach and reach and grab a small toy when it is offered. Cognitive development: also referred to as intellectual development is development of the mind. Recognising, reasoning, knowing and understanding. It is how children think and make sense of their world. Language development: language development is the development of communication skills i.e being able to put what you are thinking into words and say it in such a way that other people understand it. At birth, babies will make eye-contact and cry to indicate they need something. Cognitive and language development are closely linked. By six months, they will have begun to talk to themselves in a tuneful, sing-song voice. Emotional development: This is the development of feelings- feelings about oneself and also feelings for others. Self-esteem and self-concept are covered in this area of development. At birth, babies will enjoy feeding and cuddling. By around six months, they may begin to show distress when their mothers leave. Social development: this area of development is referring to how children develop relationships with others. Children need to learn the skills and attitudes required allowing them to get along well with others- this is referred to as socialisation. Emotional and social developments are closely linked and a new-born baby enjoying feeding and cuddling can be taken as social and emotional development. By around six months physical development may mean that they are now able to offer toys to others. Holistic development sees the child as a whole person- physically, emotionally, intellectually, socially, morally, culturally and spiritually. If you watch children playing, they do not divide up their development. They move effortlessly from using their communication skills to question and speculate their physical skills to move around, and their thinking skill to work out how to do their next task. Children will use all aspects of their current skills together when playing. The “whole child” approach stresses the importance of always considering children as entire individuals with all their skills being important and supporting their whole development. A child who is ill will not be able to deal with day to day life as well as they may normally would(they may not be well enough to go to school) and may need a lot more cuddles and comforting than they normally would. The “key person” system adopted in nurseries, after school clubs etc. shows that childcare workers now widely recognises that quality care can only be delivered if caring, personal relationships are adopted. Emotional warmth and secure relationships are crucial for even the very youngest of children. The key person relationship is not just about completing the child’s paperwork, it is a personal relationship. Ideally, the key person is the one who attends to the child’s physical needs and really gets to know their needs and preferences. It makes no sense to separate cognitive development from emotional development. Children cannot learn if they are hungry, dehydrated or tired. Their physical needs must be met in order for them to work to the best of their ability. Many schools now allow children to have bottles of water on their desk as they recognise a holistic approach is best. Some holistic approaches are also linked with healthy eating- a health tuck-shop is offered at break times and only health approved foods make it onto the menu for school lunches. The best outcomes for children are when practitioners in childcare settings take a holistic approach- when they recognise that all areas of development are equally important and give time and attention to all areas equally. It is important for childcare workers to have a detailed knowledge of children’s development because it allows them to know what activities to provide them with that are ages and stage appropriate. It affords them the knowledge that the child’s behaviour is “normal” for their age and stage and not something to worry about (a six month old crying when the mother leaves is normal and not because the baby does not like them or is ill and so on.) It allows them to adopt their behaviour in appropriate ways- very young babies need lots of cuddles, rest and feeds where three year olds need much more stimulation and interaction. Being aware of children’s development is also very important for allowing childcare workers to identify when a child requires additional support and resources. Delayed or restricted development cannot always be explained by disability- problems in the child’s emotional wellbeing or physical wellbeing may be the cause as may inherit conditions or life style. Child care workers need to be able to identify when something is not as it should be in a child’s development and work with other professional to put measures in place to assist the chid in reaching their full potential. Babies thrive from love, warmth and affection. They require lots of sleep in a place that is fit for purpose i.e. a room which is quite, warm, not over stimulating. A child’s individual needs will determine their routine for example rest times. New-born babies spend most of their time asleep and very young children need considerably more sleep than adults. Sleep is essential for the human body. During sleep time, the body rest the muscles, repairs cells and refreshes itself. Children also need sleep because during this time the body releases a hormone that helps them to grow. Lack of sleep affects mood, memory and concentration. During their waking time they will need fed often initially only requiring milk then after weaning require a balanced, healthy diet initially all foods will require to be pureed and by the time the baby reaches about one, they will be able to eat what the rest of the family is eating. Weaning is the process of getting babies used to taking solid food. By around six months babies need solid foods as they cannot get enough nutrients from milk alone. The process of weaning also helps babies become part of the family and they learn to socialise through having the same foods as others. During their time awake, babies need an environment that is equipped with bright attractive stimulating toys allowing the children to explore and develop at their own rate- activities are play based and appropriate to the age and stage of development of each individual child. Babies also require fresh air and it is important to get them in their buggies and out for a walk weather permitting. Some babies will be looked after in a nursery environment to allow their parents/carers to work. Nurseries will follow the Birth to Three Matters Guidelines to cover all aspects of developments. Babies will be allocated a key worker and nurseries will aim to ensure there is a good relationship between staff and parents/carers. Nurseries aim to offer security, reassurance and continuity for all children. Children will be ready for toilet training by around 18-24 months. During this period of development children require much support and patience from their caregivers. It is important that parents/carers share information during this time with others who look after their child for example words used at home need to be exchanged- what is the “family” name for the potty. …………………….. Babies and children under the age of two are particularly vulnerable to infection and great care must be taken when preparing bottles/feeds/foods and drinks. Sterilisation procedures must be carried out until around 12months at home and in day care centres this time will be extended to around 15 months. Manufacturer’s guidelines on sterilisation must be followed. All left over foods must be thrown away. When working with children there are times when persons may come into contact with body fluids- e.g. blood, urine, faeces and vomit. Many infections, including HIV and hepatitis can be passed on through contact with these fluids and therefore caregivers must take precautions. These include: wear protective gloves when dealing with body fluids. Ensure any cuts to the hands are covered with a plaster and wash hands properly after disposing of any waste. Keeping children clean helps prevent infection from spreading and also helps them feel more comfortable. A personal hygiene routine for an older child includes. Hand and face washing (prevents infection and germs spreading) Combing/brushing hair (this also allows for the checking of head lice or nits) Changing underwear/nightclothes daily Bathing/Showering (good skin condition plays an important role in overall health) Cleaning teeth (prevents tooth decay and keeps gums healthy) Changing bed clothes Keeping nails trimmed Sometimes a child may be too poorly to bath and their parent/carer can help them by giving them an all over wash with a clean flannel Play and Learning: the Birth to Three Matters Framework guide is what is followed for the children being looked after in day-care nurseries so that they will become strong, healthy children who are competent learners and skilful communicators. They will foster the child’s curiosity about their environment. Children will actively explore the world around them, through touch, sight, sound, smell and movement. They will quickly develop confidence, skills and knowledge and discover that learning is interesting and fun. The Early Years Curriculum for children aged three to five (or until they finish nursery to begin primary school). This is known as the Foundation Stage and should prepare all children for starting at school. Outside Play: Outside play areas are important for children’s development. Children need to explore the world around them and enjoy finding out about plants, wildlife and insects as well as other features of the outdoors such as the weather. Nutrition: In the first year of life, most babies will treble their birth weight. They therefore need to be fed well to allow this to happen. For the first 4-6 months, babies gain all the nutrients they need from either breast or formula milk. After around six months other sources of food need to be brought in. The process of starting solid food is called weaning and milk will still remain an important part of the babies’ diet. The choice of breast or bottle feeding is entirely up to the mothers own preference. Breast milk contains not only nutrients but also antibodies from the mother which help fight against infections. Formula milk also contains all the nutrients a baby need to thrive. The time to start weaning is not set in stone- babies will show signs of needing extras food such as waking through the night hungry, finishing feeds and still appearing hungry and poor weight gain. Weaning has three stages: Stage 1: 4-6 months/Foods are pureed or liquidised. Foods include things like baby rice, vegetable purees, fruit purees. Stage 2:6-9 months/Foods are mashed so they are slightly thicker but still easy to swallow. Foods include fish, meat, poultry, wide range of fruit and vegetables Stage 3: 9 months plus/Foods now include finger foods that baby can feed themselves such as fish fingers, pieces of fruit also well balanced diet of meats, fruits, vegetables. Encouraging babies to feed themselves is important as it helps them to become independent. It also encourages their physical development as it helps them to control their hand movements. A high standard of hygiene is essential when preparing food for very young babies and young children. There are a few rules that need to be followed with regard to weaning: *weaning should not start before 4months *Sugar and Salt should never be added to food *Uncooked or soft boiled eggs should not be given to babies *No wheat products should be given under 6months *Liver should not be given to babies and young children *Cow’s milk should not be given before 6months and preferably not till after the first year. *Unpasteurised cheeses should not be given to babies *Honey should not be given to under ones as it contains bacteria that can cause the serious illness infant botulism *Shark, swordfish or marlin should not be given to babies as they contain too much mercury and this will affect to growing nervous system. Raw shellfish can also increase the risk of food poisoning and should be avoided. Salt is not good for babies kidneys and parents/carers need to take care not to use items such as stock cubes when preparing babies meals as they will have a high salt content. Too much sugar is not good for babies and by avoiding sugary treats; parents/carers can help prevent tooth decay. Food and water are essential for life and the food that children eat is especially important as it helps them to grow and gives them energy so that they can develop. Recent research has proved that the food eaten in childhood can make a difference to adult health. Mealtimes provide an opportunity for children to enjoy being together as well as develop healthy eating patterns. Children’s bodies need several different nutrients to stay healthy. These are: carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins, minerals. In order to gain all the nutrients the body needs, a wide range of foods must be eaten. This is what is meant by a balanced diet. Children need more energy than adults. Nutrient | Benefit to body | Example of food | Carbohydrate | Energy | Bread/Pasta/Potatoes/Bananas/Vegetables/Sweet Potatoes | Protein | Growth and cell repair | Meat/Eggs/Fish/Milk | Fat | Energy and assist with absorption of vitamin A & D | Butter/Margarine/Vegetable Oil/ Meat/Fish/Dairy Products | Vitamin A | Eyes & Eyesight | Carrots/Fatty Fish/Margarine/Milk | Vitamin B | Nervous system and energy release | Bread/Meat/Pasta/Flour/Rice/Noodles | Vitamin C | Skin & Gums | Oranges/Blackcurrants/Potatoes | Vitamin E | Skin | Vegetable Oils/Green leafy Veg/Milk/Nuts | Vitamin K | Helps blood clot | Vegetables | Vitamin D | Teeth & Bones | Milk/Margarine/Cheese/Dairy Products | Iron | Helps blood carry oxygen | Red Meat/Broccoli/Spinach | Calcium & Phosphorus | Bones and teeth | Milk/Cheese/Butter/Yoghurt/Dairy Products | Fluoride | Teeth & Bones | Water/Seafood | Food gives children energy. Energy from food is measured in kilo calories and as children grow, they need more energy. Boys need more energy than girls. BOYS | K calories | GIRLS | K calories | Under 1 | 780 | Under 1 | 720 | 1 year | 1200 | 1 year | 1100 | 2 years | 1400 | 2 years | 1300 | 3-4 years | 1560 | 3-4 years | 1500 | 5-6 years | 1740 | 5-6 years | 1680 | 7-8 years | 1980 | 7-8 years | 1900 | Water and drinks are just as important as foods. If a child does not drink enough, they can become dehydrated which is a serious condition. Temperature control is one of many things water is need for. Eating a balanced diet helps the body not only grow healthily but also fight infections and prevent diseases. Children who do not eat a balanced and varied diet are at risk of failing to gain in height or weight, be less mentally alert – diet affects cognitive development and lacking in energy. Using food as a learning opportunity: Writing & Drawing- children can gain much enjoyment from making up their own menus or placemats. Social language and social skills- eating with others is fun. Eating at the table with family or friends is a sociable activity. Parents and carers act as good role models by sitting with the children eating. Children often enjoy tasks such as setting the table or simple food preparation task such as peeling fruit. Independence & Self Esteem- children feel grown up and responsible when given tasks such as setting the table. Maths & Science- children can count out the number of place settings required and how much cutlery is needed. They can assist with measuring ingredients when helping bake etc. They can see how food changes when it is cooked Hygiene, Physical needs, rest and exercise: Every item that is in contact with babies is a potential source of infection. In the first year of life particularly, babies put their hands in their mouths and any other items /objects that they can manage and can therefore end up swallowing the bacteria from them. This means that good all round hygiene is essential. Sterilisation and cleaning procedures must be carried out routinely. Items such as bottles/beakers/dummies/rattles/high chairs etc. need cleaned every time before they are used. Skin cleaning routines will vary depending on parents’ wishes and cultural traditions. E.g. many Muslims bathe under running water which will mean that a baby bath is unsuitable. Skin care products must always be checked to ensure that they are suitable for delicate/sensitive skin. Some babies/children need skin products to help care for skin conditions such as eczema. Babies and young children should never be left alone near or in water to avoid the risk of drowning and the temperature of the water used should ALWAYS be checked to ensure it will not be too hot that it will scald the baby. At around six months, babies start getting their first teeth. It is important that these are cared for as they help guide the permanent adult teeth into position. Tooth brushing with a small soft-bristle brush should begin as soon as the first tooth appears. Tooth paste suitable for babies should be used. Fruit juices and sugary drinks in bottles should be avoided to prevent dental decay. Babies should never be left with dirty wet nappies as skin can become sore and infected. There are a few simple rules to follow when nappy changing- always wipe girls from front to back to avoid infection, do n0ot pull foreskin back on baby boys, always wash hands before and after changing nappies and wipe down changing mats using disinfectant. Nappy rash is common in babies. It is sore, painful and uncomfortable and everything as far as possible must be done to prevent it from developing. Promoting a safe environment for the developing baby/child. It is essential to make sure that children’s environments are safe. This can be done by carrying out safety checks and by being constantly observant. Every environment has different risk that it presents. The most common injuries to children include: Burns & scalds; from items such as lighters and matches, radiators, gas fires, hot drinks, kettles, cookers etc. Injuries caused by falls; from unlocked windows, stairs, high chairs, push chairs, climbing frames etc Choking & suffocation; cords, ribbons, skipping ropes, plastic bags, peanuts, very small toys, toys with lose parts Poisoning; from medicines, cleaning products etc. Cuts; from items such as knifes, scissors, sharp edges or corners, glass doors There are huge numbers of pieces of safety equipment that can be used when working with children. These include reins and harnesses, safety gates, play pens, smoke alarms, fire blankets, catches for windows and cupboards, socket plugs, plastic corners for furniture corners. Checking equipment and toys can also prevent accidents. Most equipment wears out eventually and particular attention should be paid to items that bear children’s weight such as climbing frames. Items that have become broken or unstable should be thrown away and replaced. Cleaning toys and equipment is a good way of checking they are safe at the same time as preventing the spread of infection. All toys and equipment used around children should have a safety mark on it. Supervision is an essential part of preventing accidents. Toddlers in particular need close supervision as their actions are unpredictable and they have no concept of danger. Also very young children tend to put all items in their mouth. Good supervision involves knowing when to step in to prevent an accident yet at the same time not getting in the way of the children having fun. As children become older, they begin to understand dangers and also become more able to understand and follow rules that are put in place to keep them away from danger. We can explain to them why for example they must not jump off the stairs. The layout of childcare settings also affects safety. A good layout will afford the children plenty of space to run around and play and be clean and tidy to avoid accidents from trips and slips. Access points and fire doors must be kept clear at all time in case of fires and other emergencies. Outdoors, dangers such as paddling pools, cat and dog faeces, the ability to wander off etc. need to be identified and managed. Children need quite areas for times when they need to rest. They may feel tired or may need some space alone from all the hustle and bustle of the daily goings on. Transitions are changes that take place in our life’s; changes that move us from one stage to another for example going from being single to being married. Transitions are an essential part of growing up and the most important ones happen when we are babies and young children. Some of the more universal transitions that all children experience are: •birth itself •from milk to solids •from crawling to walking •from being fed to feeding ourselves •from nappies to being trained •becoming self-aware •able to be cared for by others •going to nursery •going to school •developing new skills. Other transitions that some of the children in your care may experience are: •a new baby •violence/abuse •parents divorcing/step parent/new partner •a serious illness/accident/death in the family •unexpected change of school •moving house It is these early transitions, and how we cope with them that will have the greatest effect on the rest of our emotional development, and on our ability to cope with life’s challenges. All of the transitions listed will present children with challenges and it is essential that children are supported by those around them during these changes. The support from parent/carers will determine how well a child copes with any given transition. Children’s early experiences of transitions have a major impact on how they deal with later life experiences. A warm, firm and consistent response, even when a child has made a mistake is essential if a child is to come through a transition period with positive outcomes; feeling they belong, feeling more confident, and a deepening of trust with important people. With unexpected transitions, such as divorce or moving house, there is even more pressure on the adults to get the supporting response right. Much damage can be done to a child if their feelings are not responded to when some serious change is taking place. Children learn to relate certain things with one another. For example, if a child is shouted at every time they make a mess, they will learn to expect to be shouted at wherever they are if a mess is created as this is now how their mind is set. Mind-set is like a set of rules that we expect to happen through our own experiences. Transitions offer new experience’s for children to learn to deal with. When an experience is repeated time after time it becomes learnt and these can be really difficult to change. Mind sets become almost instinctive it is crucial that young children are treated with love, warmth and security in a trusting environment otherwise they will live with fear and anxiety and become defensive and subdued. A transitional object is anything which, for the child, symbolises home life, mummy and things familiar. The younger child will use a cuddly toy, or suck a thumb. The older child may have a firmer grasp of being loved and cared for and feel safe inside without need for something tangible. Children go through many transitions. If a child has positive experiences of going through transitions, they will have self-confidence and be trusting of others. They will have a strong bond with their main caregiver who has been supportive, understanding, affectionate and approving towards them. A child will be anxious if transitions have been handled badly. They may be disruptive and act out their anxieties in strange ways such as hiding behind furniture or lashing out. A confident child will have a good understanding of how things should be based on their positive experiences and will accept comfort and support during periods of anxiety should they have to go through them. Positive and Negative influences on development: | Positive | Negative | Genetic, Health | Hair colour, eye colour | Genetic disorders e.g. downs syndrome, autism and Asperger’s mean children find it harder to form relationships with other people. | Environment | A positive environment for children is a warm welcoming one where they feel wanted and appreciated. This gives them a sense of belonging. A positive environment is also a secure one where children feel they are being protected and cared for.Good education, good parenting | Poor parenting, poor education- environmental variables can negatively affect development | Financial and Family backgrounds and circumstances | Being brought up in a financially secure household will allow children opportunities such as healthy food being bought, treats such as trips to the swimming, nice clothes etc. | Poverty can lead to limited opportunities.Position in the family e.g. only child may not have as many play opportunities/ on the other hand a child from a large family may suffer from jealousy and fear of competition from siblings | Emotional | Unconditional love and affection is a basic need for children. When they feel loved and valued they develop a positive self-concept. Unconditional love means accepting children for who they are not what they can do or look like | Poor attachment to parent/ main carer has a massive effect on children’s emotional and social development | Social, Cultural | Security, education and socialisation depend greatly on the individual’s culture.Children learn a lot from socialisation. | Lack of opportunity to socialise can cause children to feel different from other children and can lower their self esteemChildren need the opportunity to be with other children if they are to develop their social skills | Discrimination | Children are widely protected against discriminations negative influences | Prejudice leads to discrimination. Discrimination in this country is often based on age, race, gender, sexual orientation, health and social class. Discrimination is unfair and damaging- children need to feel valued in order to fulfil their potential and eventually take their place in society. | Disability and sensory impairments | Impacts on developments vary greatly depending on what the disability or impairment is. Modern treatments are designed to enhance other body parts and bring out the best in them to compensate for the lack of response in other partsNew and improved treatment emerging regularly to | Communication difficultiesMay affect walking and other movementsMay affect cognitive processes | Play opportunities | Children who are not given the opportunity to play are missing out on valuable social experience.Children may feel sad and lonely. | Play allows children to use their creativity while developing their imagination, dexterity, and physical, cognitive, and emotional strength. Play is important to healthy brain development.Play allows children to create and explore a world they can master, conquering their fears while practicing adult roles. | | | | Equal opportunities means making sure that the children in my care are seen as being individual and special. This means that all children may not be treated the same- some children may need more adult help than others or require special equipment to carry out an activity. Equality of opportunities means making sure that children are equally valued and are given the same opportunities to fulfil their potential. Additional needs and the difficulties they may have – how you would support them to develop including how you would promote inclusion for the child and family. Learning difficulties, behavioural difficulties e.g. ADHD and sensory impairments- needs relating to problems with sight or hearing all fall under the term “special needs” the term used to describe children whose development differs from the norm. The Children’s Act 2004 promotes the integration of disabled children in mainstream settings, such as nursery schools and schools. Many services are available to help children who have special needs to learn and develop. These include physiotherapy, speech and language therapy, occupational therapy, equipment and special aids provisions, specialist play groups, health visitor support, social work support, help from the local education department and more. Children with special needs attending mainstream nurseries, schools, after school clubs and so on require one-to-one attention from trained workers. Children with visual impairments are frequently delayed in their physical and motor skills e.g. they may not be able to pick an object because they cannot locate it. Helping children understand about space and size will help to promote their development. Other ways of promoting development include ensuring that the environment is suitable, providing cues during activities such as eating, communicating clearly so that the child knows what will be happening, keeping floors and tidy and avoiding sudden changes in light. The layout of the room should not be changed and using mirrors and lights to promote visual co-ordination is important too. Children with learning disabilities will usually go through the typical sequence of development stages but at a much slower rate. Characteristics of learning difficulties vary widely but a few approaches can be applied to all; children may have short attention spans, may have difficulty making transitions, may prefer to play with younger children, may not remember things well, may speak and use language of younger children and so on. We can help promote their development by keeping verbal instructions simple, show children how to do things by guiding their hands and body through the movements of an activity, avoid sudden transitions, provide cues to help children know what is expected from them, provide opportunity’s to play near a child doing a similar activity and more. Children with behavioural difficulties often display three types of extreme behaviour: withdrawal, aggression or hyperactivity. Children may use aggression to deal with most situations and show extreme fear and anxiety. They may not be able to recognise basic feelings of happiness, sadness, anger or fear and may react in the same way such as crying or hitting. Children may not want to be touched and may withdraw or stay quiet and passive. They may regress to babyish behaviour when stress occurs and may cry, seem depressed and unhappy. We can promote their development by making sure that the environment is suitable. Children need to be treated uniquely and always taken seriously-staff need to show children that they believe in them. Each child needs to be listened to with respect and not compared to other children. Children who are withdrawn can be invited to join in an activity by watching others and when they become comfortable they can be invited to join in. Children need to have the opportunity to play and learn in an environment that makes them feel valued while encouraging them to respect others. Providing play resources that allow children to express themselves and explore the differences between them is important. Ways of doing this include: Activities that allow self-expression- helping children talk about themselves and their feelings such as drawing pictures of themselves with expressions or activities that allow them to have quite time such as play dough or activities that allow them to vent their anger such as water activities. Materials that show different ways of communicating that help children learn about others such as books in languages other than English and DVDs in other languages. Celebrations- festivals from many religions and cultures can be celebrated. These make good learning opportunities. Home Corners- these can help children understand that there are many ways of setting up a home. Dressing up clothes can be provided in this area and dolls of different colours, shapes and sizes can be provided. Displays and Interest tables can also add to the learning environment. Interesting object, artwork and various different objects can help children understand the interesting world they live in. Stereotyping and labelling stop children from learning. Children need to be confident enough to try out different experiences and ways of playing that will allow them to learn. When a child feels that they cannot or should not try something, they miss out on an opportunity to learn. Stereotyping and labelling does this to children. A child who overhears an adult describe them as stupid for example may not believe they can do something without even trying it and equally a child who overhears an adult describe them as very neat may not want to paint freely for fear of it not being liked for not being neat. Theories of play and learning: Smiling is one of the first ways in which babies initiate social interaction. From around about six weeks right up until around seven months, the baby will smile at anyone who approaches them. After around about seven months, this changes and they become more selective at whom they will smile at. The change in behaviour is related to their development of specific attachments. By around two – three months old, a baby will have developed a clear bond with its mother or primary carer in the absence of the mother. The baby will show preference to being with the mother in times of distress and will show more pleasure at seeing the mother than anyone else. What is attachment behaviour' BOWLBY suggests that the infant possesses a number of inborn behaviour patterns, such as following, clinging, sucking, smiling and crying, which serve to bind the child to his mother from the beginning. He calls this attachment behaviour. Attachment and attachment behaviours are different things. Attachment is when a child displays an obvious preference to be with someone whereas attachment behaviour is specific behaviours that a child will use to ensure that they remain close to this specific person. E.g. when distressed, the baby will only settle for the mother- the father, auntie or granny will not be able to settle the infant because the infant is waiting on the mother to cuddle them. Very young babies will not give a second thought to their mother or father leaving the room however as they get older they will start to show signs of distress when this happens by crying or making noises – this is an example of an attachment behaviour. Maternal separation is the term used to describe a number of scenarios where an infant is deprived of a close relationship from their mother. The infant being placed in care, the mother may be hospitalised, death of the mother, the mother may be sent to prison or may walk out on the family to name but a few examples of this. Maternal separation can occur even when the mother is still present in the house but may be unable to sustain a close, intimate relationship with the child because of problems such as alcohol or drug dependency or post natal depression. Rutter (1972) found in his studies that babies need a “chief” bond. This bond does not necessarily have to be with the mother- as long as at least one bond occurs. The bonding process takes place over a period of time- it is not a single event. The first bond to develop is normally with the mother in the period of time immediately after the birth. If the father is present at this point, he will also have the opportunity to form a close bond. Research has proved that babies and young children show a strong attachment to their mother. However there is also evidence to prove that strong attachments can be formed with other family members. The key is the time spent with the youngster. Children are able to have multiple attachments. Secure attachment in early childhood is very important. The bonds babies build up with their mothers can probably be best described as feelings- they feel secure, they feel loved, they understand that their needs will be met. Babies form a relationship with their mother which is different to any other relationship which they form. It is a special bond that usually develops over the first six months of life. Psychologists such as John Bowbly suggest that a breakdown I this relationship would result in serious detrimental consequences. Attachments don’t just develop as a result of the mother being with the baby, the are a result of the quality of the time spent with the baby. How affectionately and sympathetically the mother responds to the baby’s needs. Mothers need to interact with their child not just take care of their basic needs. Rutter provided evidence that children can develop normally despite maternal deprivation. He made clear the importance of their relationships with other people such as their father and that their bond with them could be just as strong. As long as a chief bond is present with someone in the child’s life, they should be able to have their needs met, feel secure, feel loved. Learning can be defined as the act, process or experience of gaining knowledge or gaining a skill. In Psychology, behaviour is regarded as being modified mainly through experience or conditioning. Learning is very important throughout childhood as it as it will affect all future behaviour. Parents and important others often offer children praise and rewards such as a small sweet for accomplishments such as taking their first few steps even although they are not necessary for the learning to take place. In other situations however especially one where at least some conscious effort is required, reward and punishment do play an important part. Learning is part of child development and there are two major theories of how children learn. Both of the theories agree that learning can be demonstrated when a given stimulus promotes given response. The two approaches differ in terms of how the links occurs: classical conditioning states that learning occurs as a result of association and operant conditioning states that learning occurs as a result of reinforcement. Classical Conditioning: Russian psychologist Ivan Pavlov discovered this behavioural learning theory. It is a learning process that occurs through associations between an environmental stimulus and a naturally occurring stimulus. Stimuli are either unconditioned resulting in an unconditioned response or conditioned and have a conditioned response. The unconditioned stimuli is one that unconditionally, naturally and automatically triggers a response. The unconditioned response is an unlearned response that occurs naturally in response to the unconditioned stimulus. The conditioned stimulus is a previously neutral stimulus that, after becoming associated with the unconditioned stimulus, eventually comes to trigger a conditioned response. The conditioned response is the learned response to the previously neutral stimulus. Operant Conditioning: This is also sometimes known as instrumental conditioning. The method of learning is through rewards and punishments. Rewards are given for desired behaviour and punishments for undesirable behaviour. The rewards should then provide the motivation for the positive behaviour to continue and the punishments should provide a deterrent for undesirable behaviour. Reinforcers are a component of operant conditioning. Reinforcers are an object or event that will increases the probability that the response will happen. Positive reinforces are ones which are favourable as the outcome for desirable behaviour such as a sweet for tidying toys away. Negative reinforcement is the removal of an unfavourable event or outcome after the display of behaviour such as having to sit on the naughty step for hitting another child. Positive and negative Reinforcers are both there to increase behaviour. The basic principle of operant conditioning is behaviour which is reinforced will more than likely be repeated and behaviour which is not reinforced normally phases out. A punishment is not the same as negative reinforcement – it is the infliction of pain. Learning Theories have their advantages and disadvantages in explaining how learning takes place. The main advantage of operant conditioning is that it clearly shows how rewards and punishments can control behaviour. Disadvantages include the fact that a great deal of learning occurs which cannot be explained by operant or classical conditioning such as the acquisition of object permanence. Piaget believes that intellectual development occurs as the child is constantly trying to make sense of his world and adapt to his environment. He believes that children’s intellectual abilities are qualitative. Piaget believed that children were like sponges- they absorbed every bit of information they came into contact with. It was not only with age that children’s intellectual ability increased but children learn through experience, they learn from mistakes, they learn from being placed in situations and from all that is going on around them. In his theory of cognitive development, Piaget makes sense of the child’s mental structures (schemas) by viewing intelligence as a mental activity which enables children to make sense of their surroundings. Piaget’s theory on moral development was influenced by his theory on cognitive development. Again with this theory he believed that stages of moral development were related to the age and stage of the child. Having morals can best be described as having a sense of what is right and what is wrong. It is about knowing how to behave in certain circumstances. It is a psychological thing rather than a physical thing. Pre-moral judgement is the first stage a child will go through. It is from birth until the child is about the age of five. Throughout this period of a child’s life, they do not understand what is right or wrong or have any idea of consequences. They do not have a sense of morality. This stage coincides with the pre-operational stage of Piaget's cognitive theory. It is related to it because a young child has poor conception of other people's consciousness’s, and is incapable of carrying out complex mental operations; therefore it’s not possible for them to have any sense of morality. Moral realism the stage which a child goes through from around about the age of five to nine is the second stage of Piaget’s moral development. By this stage, children now understand the idea behind the rules they are faced with however they are still seen as external and unchangeable. Children will stick to the rules simply because they exist and they know what the consequences of their actions may be. They do not evaluate the intention of the wrongdoer. Children obey rules largely because they are there. In terms of Piaget's cognitive theory, this stage corresponds to the pre-operational and concrete operational stages. Moral relativity is the third and final stage and begins at roughly the age of seven therefore overlapping in the beginning with moral realism. By this stage children realise that rules are not in fact unchangeable but by mutual agreement they can be changed and their own internal morality has begun to develop. The biggest development in this stage is that actions are now judged by the intentions behind them. Children also understand better the idea of punishments for wrong doings and why they may be necessary. This stage corresponds to the concrete and formal operational stages in Piaget's cognitive theory. During this stage children become able to carry out complex mental operations. Jean Piaget a Swiss psychologist names an important stage in a child’s development necessary for attachment behaviour. It is called object permanence or object conservation. This normally occurs around the 8 or 9 month mark. Object permanence is the ability to understand that an object continues to exist even after it is moved out of sight. “Out of sight- in the mind” is a popular expression used in reference to this stage of a baby development. Object permanence is an important intellectual milestone for babies to reach. Babies can now visualise a person or object without it being in sight – they are able to hold a cognitive thought. When babies begin to understand the concept of object permanency, they often begin to suffer separation anxiety. It is when they reach this stage that mothers often refer to them as having become very clingy and complain that they can’t even visit the bathroom without their child crying for them. It has long been said that babies learn through play and playing games such as “peek-a-boo” can help babies with their understanding of object permanence. There are a number of benefits to children playing: Physical- children learn many physical skills- fine manipulative skills through activities such as drawing and gross manipulative skills through vigorous physical play. Balance and co-ordination are also leant and improved through physical play. Cognitive- exploring and touching materials helps children learn about the world around them. E.g. they can understand colour from painting. Emotional-play can develop confidence and self-esteem. Pretend play allows children to explore roles safely. Language-play allows children to learn communication skills. During pretend play children like to try new words and phrases. Social-play helps children learn to be with others. They learn to be co-operative and explore relationships. Social skills can be learnt through play. Behavioural- play that is enjoyable and challenging will make children concentrate and develop self-reliance. Bad behaviour is often a result of boredom and creating exciting play opportunities can alleviate this. Cultural- children can learn about the world around them through play. Play is crucial to children’s all-round development. Well planned play (both indoor and outdoor) is a key way in which children learn with enjoyment and challenge. In playing, children can behave in a number of ways from being boisterous, to quiet and reflective to describing and discussing what they are doing. Children can often determine their own play and the adult’s role is to give opportunity and guidance where necessary. Play provides children the opportunity to develop confidence, self-esteem and a sense of security. Children can begin to realise their potential and be creative and imaginative. Reading, thinking and problem solving skills as well as motor skills can be developed. Through play, children can begin to learn how to control their emotions and learn relationship skills, social skills and develop values and ethics. Children of all ages need to have the opportunity to learn from play. Play is an important part of children’s learning and development. It is important to understand that play isn’t just physical. Playing can involve the use of emotional and social aspects of a child as well as cognitive, imaginative and creative aspects being involved. There are many reasons why play is valued: Children can learn a lot through play. Play comes naturally to children and is a fundamental part of childhood. Play can help children learn about the world around them. Play can help children cope with their feelings and help them develop cognitively. Children can be placed in free play situations where the learning is self-initiated or in structured play situations where specific toys and materials are provided to allow the children to learn about a specific topic. An example of this would be having a sound table within a nursery where all items on this table begin with a chosen letter to help the children learn about that letter. Play inspires fun and laughter and it is important for children to have happy childhoods. Playing helps children’s imaginations develop- it is something which occurs everyday and something which children take very seriously. Children’s social etiquette can be developed and brought on through play as they learn about sharing and taking turns. Children’s physical abilities can be developed through play as they run/jump/skip/hop around playing. The use of balls etc. can also help develop their hand/ eye co-ordination. Parents and significant others spending time “playing” with their children are giving them quality one on one attention. This helps them to feel loved and special and strengthens the bond between them. Outdoor play is especially good for children getting some physical exercise which is vital for keeping them healthy. Play is important for children’s problem solving skills. It can be seen as a building block in their development. As they put the pieces together to solve one problem, they will then move onto a new problem that needs solving- all the while building on their intelligence. Children’s self-esteem can really begin to grow as they develop a confidence within themselves about their own abilities. Multi-sensory play activities help children to understand their senses through touch, sight and sound activities. Gordon Sturrock and Perry Else theory of play: They believe that it is a basic human instinct the drive to want to play and that the play drive helps children learn key skills essential for survival. The play drive cannot be seen although the effects it produces can be. The Metalude: an internal contemplation of the need to play. It causes the child to produce an action known as a play cue. Play Cue; an action produced by the child to indicate the want to play such as a facial expression, body language or a vocalisation. Play Return; this is the answer to a play cue. Continuation of the play, changing the game of play or the play cue may be ignored. Play Frame; things that hold the play together – a material or non-material boundary. Play flow; the child may move objects or adapting the play in some other way to create a varied response that maintains the play flow. Play cycle consists of the full flow of play from the child's first play cue, the perceived return from the outside world, the child’s response to the return, and the further development of play to the point where the play is complete. Play drive; this is about choice for the child. The drive starts the play cycle This theory recognises that play is done for its own sake and not for some kind of reward. It is important to consider this when working with children because it means that they play opportunities that are provided should be fun and enjoyable and not set out reward children. It is also important to consider this theory because it is the children’s right to choose how they wish to play. Play opportunities can be provided but the children can then be left to choose exactly how they wish to use this opportunity. As a childcare worker it is not for me to interrupt this play and tell them that this is not what they are meant to be doing and try and alter what they are doing. Sturrock and Else believe that play is incremental and developmental and anyone who tries to lead or force it will be denying the play drive purpose and adulterating the child play. Children denied choice will be inhibited in their play and the cycle will be incomplete. By observing children we can choose activities that will promote their learning and development. This means considering how children use materials or play and then working out what their next steps might be. When working with children staff are continually observing children as they look for signs that children are enjoying activities this is seen as informal observing when staffs are constantly noticing what children are doing. As well as informal observations, there are a number of ways of formally recording observations. Structured recording- tick charts & checklists. A structured recording is when we look out for particular skills or behaviour that children show. Part 3- Supporting children’s development New-born babies are given personal child health records- this is a way od keeping track of the child’s progress. Records are kept of the child’s height and weight, immunisations, childhood illnesses and accidents. Developmental reviews are carried out in child health clinics and at the child’s home by health visitors. Children’s holistic development is reviewed as; gross motor skills- sitting, standing, walking and running, fine motor skills- stacking bricks, handling toys, speech and language, vision and social behaviour. Assessment of new-born babies is done by a paediatrician and includes a hearing test, weight, the spine is checked for any evidence of spina bifida, the mouth is checked for any evidence of a cleft palate, the circumference of the head is measured, the eyes are checked for cataracts, the neck is examined for evidence of any injury or damage from the birth, hands are checked for webbing(a feature of downs syndrome) hips are tested for congenital dislocation, feet are checked for webbing and club foot, the reflex actions are observed. Other medical checks include listening to the heart and lungs top detect any abnormality and examining the anus and the genitalia for any malformation. Babies and children are continually assessed throughout their lives to check their development. Specialist assessments can be arranged if there are any particular areas of concern. If problems are detected, children can be referred to specialists. A structured recording is when we look out for particular skills or behaviour that children show. This can be done using checklists or tick charts. Advantages include they are easy and quick and can be repeated at later date to see if the child has gained any further skills. This allows progress to be mapped. Disadvantages of this method are that it is quite narrow as it focuses the observer on looking only for the skills that are on the tick chart. Unstructured recordings: An unstructured recording or free recording is used to “paint a picture” of a child at the moment when the observation is taking place. The observer usually has an idea in their head of what it is they are looking to observe and records what they see. For example they may record a child’s ability to “play” with other children. Time Samples: A time sample collects information by “sampling” what a child or group of children is doing at regular intervals. E.g. the observer may choose to look at what the child is doing every ten minutes and note it down. The biggest advantage of this is that we can see what the child does over a period of time for example-over a three hour session. The disadvantage of this is that the child may display “interesting” behaviour during the time when they are not being observed. Free Descriptions (also known as narrative records) This method allows the observer to note down what a child is doing for a short period of time. Advantages of this method are that it provides a “snapshot “of the child. Disadvantages are that most observers find that they can only; manage two or three minutes of recording at any one time. Some activities are called adult directed. This means that the children are gaining experience and skills by following instructions from an adult. For example when I do a craft activity that involves first showing the children how to make something and helping and guiding them through the activity. These can be positive learning experiences for the children but care has to be taken so as not to use it as a way of “controlling the children. Activities initiated by children are different from adult directed activities because the children make the decisions and choices. Children initiated activities help children be creative, problem solve and be independent. At the after school club, children are always offered a selection of activities to take part in and are always also allowed to do activities of their own choice. The children are reminded of this after snack time when we tell them what is on offer and at the same time advise them that if there is anything else they want to do or resources they want out, they just have to ask. Before I can carry out any kind of observation, I must have my supervisor’s permission. First 4 Kids must in turn have the parents’ permission. Parents and supervisors will want to know what is being recorded and have the right to see what has been recorded- this means that I have to be extremely careful about what is written – ensuring that it is what I have observed that is written down not what I feel about a child. The child I am observing has the right to confidentiality and it is normal practice either to change the child’s name or refer to them as child A in the observations. Observations must not be discussed with anyone other than my tutor or supervisor. At First for kids, we follow the following: The Play Types Most of us use the word ‘play’ to describe what children/young people do, like the words ‘food’ or ‘music’, Play tells us little about what is happening when children/ young people play or why it might be happening. Bob Hughes identifies 16 different play types as a way of offering explanations as to why different play types might exist Play workers taxonomy of Play Types” by Bob Hughes •Communication Play Involves the articulation and expression of ideas and feelings through touch, stance, verbal and non-verbal communication •Creative Play Children/young people being creative – self-expression though any medium •Deep Play Play that is irrational to engage in because of potential danger to life, limb or reputation i.e. risk taking •Dramatic Play Themes and story lines, real life events of fiction i.e. Plays, being someone else, role play and acting out •Exploratory Play What if' I wonder why' Putting things together or taking things apart i.e. curiosity •Fantasy Play Where children/young people are playfully engaged in situations that are pure products of their imagination •Imaginative Play To enable children/young people to access other realities, where the conventional rules which govern the physical world to not apply •Locomotors Play Play Involving Movement i.e. up, down, fast, slow •Mastery Play Children/young people using their hands, tools to make changes to the environment. Demonstrating skills, experiencing control, gross and fine motor skill •Object Play In which children/young people manipulate and explore objects •Recapitulative Play Children/young people playing tribal or gang activities in which they create their own codes of expected behaviour •Role Play Children/young people engaged in imitating or re-acting something they have seen, heard read or experienced •Rough And Tumble Play Children/young people involved in physical contact. Discovering physical flexibility •Social Play Any situation which contains an expectation on all parties to ‘play by the rules’ or in a co-operative manner •Socio – Dramatic Play Playing in scenarios which represent real, possible or desired domestic, social or cultural situations •Symbolic Play Children/young people using material objects to represent something abstract i.e. being imaginative – skipping ropes being snakes