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PD/H/PE Preliminary Notes Topic: The Body in Motion The Skeletal System Planes of the Body * There are three planes of the body. * Sagittal; this is an imaginary line drawn lengthwise through the body running from front the back. The body therefore is divided into right and left. * Corronal or Frontal; an imaginary line drawn lengthwise through the body running from side to side, therefore divided into anterior and posterior. * Transverse; an imaginary line drawn through the body, therefore dividing the body into top and bottom sections. Anatomical Terms * Superior; towards the head or above. * Inferior; towards the feet or below. * Anterior; front or in front of. * Posterior; back or at the back of. * Lateral; towards the side of the body or away from the midline. * Medial; towards the midline of the body. * Proximal; closer to the top of a limb. * Distal; closer towards the bottom or end of a limb. * Supine; lying face upwards. Major Skeletal Bones * Types of Bones * Long; are hollow, tubular in shape and have a long shaft. E.g. femur and tibia. * Short; are shaped like a cube and are almost equal is length and width. E.g. carpals and tarsals. * Flat; generally thin and with a layer of spongy bone in their centre. E.g. scapula and pelvic girdle. * Irregular; have complex structures and differ from others in the body. E.g. vertebral column. * Sesamoid; classified according to location rather than shape, they are found in tendons. E.g. patella. * Functions of the Skeletal System * Support the organs and tissues of the body. * Protection for internal organs. * Base attachment for muscles; together they provide Movement. * A source of production of red and white blood cells and blood platelets. * Storage of minerals. * Bones of the Human Skeleton * Axial Skeleton; is made up of the bones that lie on the long axis of the body. This includes the cranium, vertebral column, ribs and sternum. * Appendicular Skeleton; contains the bones and limbs that connect to the limbs of the axial skeleton. Joint Structure and Actions * Joint Structure * Classification; * Fibrous or immovable. * Cartilaginous or slightly movable. * Synovial or freely movable. * Synovial Joint Structure * Synovial membrane, which lines the interior cavity of the capsule and it produces a small amount of jelly like fluid named synovial fluid which lubricates the joint. * Ligaments, fibrous bands that surround and reinforce the joint, they join bone to bone. * Tendons, connective tissue that attaches muscle to bone. * Hyaline Cartilage, provides a protective covering to the ends of bones that form the joint. * Joint Capsule, that binds the ends of bones together. * Types of Synovial Joints; * Pivot joint is where only rotation is possible. E.g. atlas and axis. * Ball and Socket joint, moves freely in all directions. E.g. pelvic girdle. * Hinge joint moves in one plane only. E.g. joint of elbow. * Gliding joint is where one bone slides on top of the other. E.g. carpals. * Saddle joint allows movement in two planes in right angles with each other. E.g. thumb. * Condyloid joint is where movement is possible in two planes but prevents rotation. E.g. wrist. * Joint Actions The Muscular System Major Skeletal Muscles * Types of Muscle Tissue * Skeletal Muscle; is named according to its location and it is attached to bones and moves as part of the skeleton. * Cardiac Muscle; it is heart muscle and it cannot be made to contract. * Smooth Muscle; is located in many of the internal hollow organs of the body and is responsible for many of the internal organ functions. * Agonist and Antagonist Muscles * Agonist; the muscle or the muscle group involved in producing a movement. * Antagonist; is the muscle opposite the working (agonist) muscle. * Isotonic Muscle Contractions * Isotonic; in this contraction muscles develop tension, or force when the fibres shorten or lengthen. There are two types of isotonic contractions Eccentric and Concentric. * Concentric; refers to the force produced by a muscle as it contracts or shortens. E.g. upward phase of a bicep curl. * Eccentric; refers to the force developed by a muscle as it lengthens. E.g. the downward phases of a bicep curl. * Isometric Muscle Contractions * Isometric; the force developed in a muscle without a change in the length of the muscle fibres. The Circulatory System Circulation * Three parts of the circulatory system; blood, blood vessels and the heart. * Three main functions of blood; protections against germs and infection, protects body through clotting and regulates body temperature and also transports oxygen. * Components of Blood * Red Blood Cells; called erythrocytes, contains red pigment named haemoglobin that takes oxygen to the muscles and body. Also transports Carbon Dioxide to the lungs. * White Blood Cells; called leucocytes, they are formed in bone marrow lymph tissue. They are the body’s defence against infection. * Plasma; yellow coloured liquid, made of 90% water, nutrients, hormones, fibrinogen and waste products. It is what remains when red and white blood cells leave and it also supplies nutrients. * Platelets; help to clot the blood and is formed in the bone marrow. * Arteries, Capillaries and Veins * Arteries carry blood at high pressure that is caused by the contraction of the heart. They have thick elastic walls and the further away from the heart they carry blood the lesser the pressure. They then divide into vessels named Arterioles, and then in turn form into capillaries. * Capillaries connect arterioles with the endings of veins named venules. They have very thin walls which allow the exchange of oxygen, carbon dioxide, nutrients and hormones between the blood and specific tissue. * Veins get their blood from smaller vessels names venules which in turn have gotten the blood from the capillaries. They generally will carry de-oxygenated blood. * Structure and Function of the Heart * Functions; circulates blood through body, helps fight disease, maintains correct body temp, helps other body systems function e.g. muscles. * Pulmonary Circulation * Body → Vena Cava (Deoxygenated) → Right Atrium → Right Ventricle → Pulmonary Artery → Lungs (Oxygenated) → Pulmonary Vein → Left Atrium → Left Ventricle → Aorta → Body * Cardiac Cycle * Is the period of one heart beat, during one heart beat both atrium contract (at the same time) forcing blood through the valves into the ventricle. The ventricles then contract forcing blood out of the heart. When the atria are contracting the ventricles are relaxed allowing them to fill with blood from the atria. When the two ventricles are contracting the atria are relaxed allowing them to fill with blood from the body and the lungs. The total contracting of the 4 chambers takes less than a second. The contraction or pumping phase is called a SYSTOLE and the relaxation phase is called a DIASTOLE. * Effect of Exercise upon The Heart * Increased flow of oxygen around the body * As fitness increases there is generally a reduction in heart rate due to increased stroke volume, increased capillarisation, greater blood volume, better utilisation of oxygen by the working muscles * Cardiac Output: the volume of blood pumped by your heart each minute. Expressed in litres of blood per minute. At rest it is approx. 5 litres/minute * Stroke Volume: the amount of blood pumped by your heart each beat, it is expressed litres per beat * * Blood Pressure * Measuring: you use a special instrument to measure the pressure needed to stop the flow of blood through an artery, two measurements are taken. Systolic is the maximum reading as the heart contracts and pumps blood into the arteries. Diastolic is the minimum reading as the heart is relaxed and fills with blood. * Affecting Blood Pressure: Age, Exercise, Stress and Tension, Cigarette Smoking, Diet. * Average: 120±10 / 80±10 mmHg * Hypertension: 160 / 95 mmHg The Respiratory System Respiration * The Structure and Function of the Respiratory System * The Respiratory system transports oxygen from the atmosphere to the bloodstream. Cells of the body continually produce CO2 and another role of the system is to remove the CO2 from the blood. Inspiratory muscles other than the diaphragm raise the rib cage whilst the diaphragm increases the lung volume by lowering the floor of the thorax when it contracts. The major muscles of inspiration are the intercostals which run at oblique angles between the ribs. * The movement of O2 from the alveoli to the blood is due to its partial pressure. This is the pressure that oxygen exerts in a mixture of other gases. * The rate of gas exchange can be altered by an increase in blood flow to the alveoli called perfusion. * Tidal volume is the amount of air inspired or expired in one breath. * Respiratory frequency is the number of breaths per minute. * Minute ventilation is the amount of air brought into and out of the lungs in one minute * During aerobic exercise tidal volume, respiratory frequency and minute ventilation all increase to help pay the increased oxygen cost. Lung Function * Inspiration and Expiration * Inspiration is the moving of air into the lungs and Expiration is the moving of air out of the lungs. * Lung Ventilation: is the movement of air in relation to inspiration and expiration. * Exchange of Gases * The exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide occurs in the capillaries within the alveoli, this exchange is called diffusion and it is caused by the differences in the concentration of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the blood and the air. This difference in concentration is called the concentration or pressure gradient. In other words, gases will move from high concentration areas of low concentration. The air that arrives in the alveoli has a high concentration of oxygen and a low concentration of carbon dioxide. The blood that arrives in the capillaries of the alveoli had a high concentration of carbon dioxide and a low concentration of oxygen. Therefore, carbon dioxide diffuses from the blood into the alveoli to be exhaled and the oxygen diffuses into the blood where it is returned to the heart. * Immediate Effect of Exercise on Respiration * Minute ventilation increases during exercise and varies before and afterwards. * Breathing can be made easier with an increase of fitness and your respiratory muscles can also be improved with fitness making breathing easier under stress. Components of Fitness Components of Physical Fitness * Health Related; cardiovascular endurance, strength, flexibility, muscular endurance and body composition * Skill-related; power, balance, agility, speed, co-ordination and reaction time Measurements of Components of Physical Fitness * Cardiovascular Endurance: the ability of the heart, lungs and circulatory system to supple oxygen to the working muscles. E.g. Beep Test * Muscular Endurance: refers to the ability of a group of muscles to work continually to fatigue or failure. E.g. Sit up or push up test * Muscular Strength: the ability of the muscle to generate force against resistance. E.g. Grip Dynamometre Test * Flexibility: range of movement around a joint. E.g. Sit and Reach Test * Body Composition: your percentage of body fat, muscle and lean tissue. E.g. Skin fold Test and BMI * Power: the ability to exert force quickly. E.g. Vertical Jump Test * Balance: ability to stay upright. E.g. Stork Stand * Agility: ability to change direction in a controlled manner at speed. E.g. Shuttle Run * Speed: ability to move quickly. E.g. 50m sprint * Co-ordination: ability to use all 5 senses simultaneously when performing a movement. E.g. hand wall toss * Reaction Time: ability to respond quickly to a stimulus. E.g. Nelson Hand reaction test Motion * Linear Motion is in a straight line * Angular Motion or circular is moving angularly * General is a combination of the above two * Linear Displacement (Distance); refers to the change in an object’s location in space in a specified direction. * Velocity (Speed); the rate of change of displacement divided by time, velocity has the direction of the movement as well as the magnitude. * Acceleration; the rate of change of velocity over time or how quickly the velocity changes. * Angular Displacement; is how much of an angle of a circle is produced. * Angular Velocity; refers to the change in angular displacement divided by time or the degrees per second that are described by an object moving in a circle. * Angular Acceleration; is the change in angular velocity divided by time and is measured in degrees per second squared. * Linear Momentum; defined as mass multiplied by angular velocity. * Angular Momentum; is mass times the radius squared multiplied by angular velocity. Force * An object will move when force is applied according to Newton’s Third Law of Motion. This states that for every action there is an equal and opposite reaction. Balance and Stability * Static and Dynamic Balance * Static; is when an object is not moving e.g. a gymnast sitting in the splits * Dynamic; the ability to stay upright on a moving object e.g. a surfer on his board along a wave * Determinants of Balance * Can be determined by a number of things; how far apart your feet are (base of support), how heavy you are, whether your centre of gravity is high or low, and your line of gravity * Position of the centre of gravity * The line of gravity (or force of) acts on you in one point and this point is called the centre of gravity. * The relationship between stability and mobility * Moving object can also be made more stable by increasing the momentum of the object. If you increase the mass of the person you increase stability, and if you increase speed you will also increase stability. Topic: Meanings of Health and Physical Activity Meanings of Health Health as a Concept * Meanings of Health * Health as the absence of Disease: this was the way health was viewed prior to World War 2 and the limitations of this are that health is much more than just the absence of illness or disease * Holistic Concept of Health: taking a broad view of health that incorporates a number of factors * Health: a state of complete physical, mental and social well being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity * Dynamic Health: constantly changing and in relation to health, changes in lifestyle behaviour, contracting illnesses, relationship issues and other factors may impact on the level of health improving or declining * Relative Health: meaning you can compare your health to the health of other people * Dimensions of Health * Physical: the capacity of our body systems to function effectively * Social: the capacity to relate effectively to other people * Mental/ Emotional: the capacity of our minds to function effectively also the capacity to experience and respond effectively to feelings in response to stimuli * Spiritual: the capacity to interpret our own place in the world * Ways of Being Healthy * The Individual: healthy when the four dimensions are balanced; health actions determined by knowledge, attitudes, beliefs and behaviours; nutrition, physical activity, drug use and relationships impact on health for young people * Balance between the individuals and the environment: include lifestyle and behaviour attitudes; environmental factors includes the physical, economic, cultural, social and political conditions under which we live; good health is balanced between the two; to the community good health means a high standard of living, greater participation in making and implementing policies and reducing health costs * Reductions in ill health: epidemiology involves the study of disease and illness trends across large populations to indentify broad risk factors Meanings of Physical Activity Physical Activity as a Concept * Meanings of Physical Activity * Physical Activity: is an activity that is not classes as exercise because of its type and intensity but it is physical none the less. E.g. gardening and housework * Exercise: activity used to improve physical fitness; revolves primarily around the FITT principle * Physical Fitness: is the accumulation of exercise and its components, it is also a measure of an individual’s ability to perform daily tasks and activities without fatigue. It is also a combined measure of both health and skill related components of health * Physical Activity and its Relationship to Fitness and Exercise * FITT Principle: Frequency (3-4 times per week), Intensity (70-85% Max H.R), Time (20-60min) & Type (Specific to you) * Physical Activity Model: The new model for health benefits * Purpose: physical activity for health benefits * Guidelines; frequency: frequent bouts of moderate activity preferably everyday * Intensity: moderate intensity exercise * Time: 30 minutes undertaken most days of the week and activity may be accumulated over a number of sessions across the day * Type: a range of activities is acceptable as long as the physical activity is of moderate intensity * Physical Activity and Its Relationship to Health * Varying Benefits: E.g. Children for fun, Athletes for fitness and the elderly for health * Overall Benefits: more energy, clear mind, physically fitter, more confidence, better figure, endorphins, calming, helps to keep you healthy, increased libido, increased metabolism, range of activities, stress release and improves skin * Types of Physical Activity: Play, Games and Sport, Outdoor Recreation, Work, Transportation, Physical Education, Planned Exercise and Incidental Activity * Social Constructs: a concept that recognises that people have different views based on their social circumstances and way of seeing, interpreting, interrelating and interacting with their environment * Changes in Meaning Over Time * Historical Perspective: Changes in health perspective have resulted from the social, scientific, political and moral changes that have taken place in regard to specific illness, diseases and sexual orientation * Changes in Meaning of Health and Physical Activity in our Lives: change in economic status, family restrictions, body image, motivation levels change, access to facilities, climate, time, interests, social networks and need for physical activity * Factors that influence Health and Physical Activity * Lifestyle: refers to the way that you live your life * Heredity: refers to the genetic characteristics that are passed on to you from your parents * Environment: how the environment around you affects all dimensions of your health * Socioeconomic Status: indicators for the environment that people live in * Motivation: a person’s inner drive or impulse that energises and directs behaviour or intention is referred to as motivation * Priorities: health and physical activity takes different priorities in people’s lives * Education: different levels of education and knowledge acquired over life * Access to Health Care: being able to get help when you need it * Socioeconomic and sociocultural: In relation to Environment