Being_a_Woman_and_Struggle_for_Being_a_Citizen_in_Middle_East

T.C Dokuz Eylül University Faculty of Business Department of International Relations Democratic Perspectives Being A Woman and Struggle for Being A Citizen in Middle East Submitted to: Dr. René Gabriels Assoc. Prof. Z Nilüfer Karacasulu Submitted by: Ayşe Yavuz 2002433039 Izmir, 2008 Table of Content: A. Introduction B. International Human Rights C. International Women Rights and Feminism D. Being a Woman in Middle East a. Afghanistan b. Egypt E. Struggle for Being a Citizen a. Local b. International F. Conclusion G. Bibliography A. Introduction: I am a 25 years old Muslim woman who is in a priviliged minority among other Muslim women in the world. Because I can enjoy all of my freedoms and liberties freely. The other women in the world who can not enjoy their rights will be this paper’s subjects. In order to show the women’s situation in the world I would like to give a quotation from 1980 UN Report. “Women constitute half of the world’s population, perform nearly two thirds of its work hours, receive one tenth of the world’s income, and own less than one hundredth of the world’s property.”[1] In Muslim world “women question” is a very controversy issue because of the “universal human rights” concept. Especially in Middle Eastern countries women can not use their rights. International arena started to interested in this “women question” in 1970s. In 1975 namely “International Women’s Year” international actors started to see the women’s situation in the world. And began to take women’s rights as human rights, made an action plan in order to empower women and achieve a real equal world. In this paper I tried to explain the situation of Middle Eastern Women and their struggle for being an equal citizen in their countries. With the central question of “To what extent can women use the women rights in their political struggle in Middle Eastern Countries'” Firstly I will explain the “universal human rights” concept and than the “women’s rights” that recognized by International arena and also their relation with ideology of feminism. After these conceptual explanation of rights and the feminism ideology I will try to answer my question by exploring the situation of women in Middle East with the cases as Afghanistan, and Egypt. I choose multiple case because the situation of women changes country to country, every states’ scholars interpret the Qur’an and Shariah differently. In order to make a realistic decision I will look the other side of the issue I will examine the local and international challenges. At the end I will conclude with my own arguements. B. International Human Rights: After World War II international actors tried to establish an equal and free world. In order to achieve this ideal world they need some general rules and regulations. The United Nations Charter did not enough for this ideal. In order to realize this world Canadian John Peters Humphey started to preparing draft of the declaration. At the end on 10 December 1948 United Nations General Assembly adopted the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in Paris. The preamble of the declaration starts with the recognition of inherent dignity and equality and the inalienable rights for all members of human family.[2] There are thirty article in the declaration which regulates general human rights. The countless bilateral and multi-party treaties and conventions always bind themselves with Universal Declaration of Human Rights. And also it served as the foundation of two binding UN human rights covenants, namely the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights. These covenants and Universal Declaration of Human Rights together composed International Bill of Human Rights.[3] Other specified rights as children’s rights or civil rights constructed by this universal declaration. One of the right groups that regulated from Universal Declaration of Human Rights are the women’s rights. C. International Women’s Rights and Feminism The women’s right concept used for the freedoms of all group of aged women and girl children. These rights include the right to bodily integrity and autonomy, to vote, to hold public office, to work, to fair wages or equal pay, to own property, to education, to serve in military, to enter into legal contracts, and to have marital, parental and religious rights. According to Fran P. Hosken the most important women’s rights are the right to food and shelter because they are the basic rights and of course the equality principle is very important while these rights realized. The inequality of women with men started within the family and spread to the whole nation.[4] The women’s right concept started to use after the Enlightenment Era and then the mid nineteenth century. And it returned to International arena after 1975 with the World Conference in Mexico. And also the 1975 was the year of International Women Year. Until 1975 the women rights issue was only in the borders of nation-states. The other conferences as 1980 Copenhagen and 1985 Nairobi had followed the first World Conference on Women in Mexico. In the first World Conference on Women on 1975 the “World Plan of Action” announced. According to this plan the maximation of participation of women was the first step of development and peaceful world. And also no discrimination about socio-economic rights between sexes, condemn of sex discrimination because its offense against human dignity and human rights.[5] On UN Mid-Decade World Conference for Women: Equality, Development and Peace in Copenhagen on 1980 themes were education, health and employment for the independence of women.[6] Charlotte Bunch tried to link women right’s to human rights with the arguement of all women right’s abuses occured because of the gender discrimination. This discrimination did not prevent by the states because it started in private sphere within the walls of houses. She claimed that the women became invisible because of these violations and seen as a secondary citizens by the states. She argued that if women’s rights linked to human rights the violations can decrease.[7] Another improvement in women’s right issue was the Vienna Declaration of Human Rights on 1993. This document was basicly on human rights but there was a part that adressing the status and rights of women and with these improvements it announce a programme of action about women’s rights.[8] In this declaration UN announced seven drafts about women’s rights. These were: 1. Improvement of the status of women in the Secretariat 2. Declaration on the elimination of violence against women 3. Communications on the status of women 4. Women, environment and development 5. Women and children under apartheid 6. Convention on the elimination of all forms of discrimination against women 7. Situation of and assistance to Palestinian women[9] Elimination of violence against women became as a human rights obligation with this Vienna Declaration.[10] The draft of fourty-nineth session of Comission of Human Rights about the regulation that charging country reporters for investigating the human rights violations that affect women ratified on 1994.[11] Dona J. Sullivan claimed that the abuses of women’s rights can be prevented with five steps. These are; 1. Elimination of violence against women will become as a human rights obligation for states 2. Prevention of universality and religious or cultural practises restricting women’s human rights 3. Integration of gender-specific information and analysis between international agencies 4. Implementation of the women’s convention and general prohibition of gender discrimination internationally 5. Development of economic, social and cultural rights and also development of states[12] One of the important events about women right’s was the Fourth World Conference on Women in Beijing on 1995. After this conference an action programme constructed and the Beijing Declaration announced. The principle themes of this conference were the advancement and empowerment of women in relation to women’s human rights, women and poverty, women and decision-making, the girl-child, violence against women and other areas of concern. [13] The implementation of Beijing Declaration was the mission of national governments and international agencies. With this declaration states that ratified it tried to achieve the goals in five years. Brooke A. Ackerly and Susan Moller Okin argued that in achieving the goals of Beijing Declaration the biggest role belong to non-governmental organizations rather that the national governments. Non-governmental organizations have bigger impact on the society rather than the government because they can use media and international actors more easier than the governments and also they can reach the women whose rights abused more quickly than state agencies.[14] After women’s rights we must explore the architects of this concept and their ideology feminism. Feminism is an untraditional idelogy, it leads to see the women situation and the inequality between women and men as the center of politics. It argues that the disadvantaged situation of women did not appear from the biological differences between men and women but in contrast appeared because of patriarchal order and cultures. There are some gender roles for women and men and these roles learned in patriarchal order’s schools by the children.[15] Simone de Beauvoir claimed that femininity and domesticity are not natural attributes of womanhood, but artifical creations which limit women’s freedom and deny them the expression of their full humanity. According to feminist ideology if this difference is not natural it should be challenged. This challenge can be only after the “consciousness-raising” between women. [16] Feminism had divided in itself with the effects from other political ideologies and the different claims of scholars. According to Valerie Bryson there are six different group among the feminists. These groups are; liberals, marxists, radicals, modern socialists, post-modernists and black feminism.[17] Feminism started to enter the arena in nineteenth century. It’s first victory was the campaign for women’s suffrage in Europe. Feminism is important in Middle East too and I will deal with it in case studies. Brooke A. Ackerly and Susan Moller Okin claimed that feminists used a social critiscm system in order to achieve their aims in international arena. This “ feminist social critisim” has three phases. First phase named as deliberative inquiry means collecting news and thoughts about women and develop women’s self-knowledge about the obstacles that they will face. Second phase is skeptical scrunity, with this phase feminist examine everything even the structure of family, religion. The last phase is guiding criteria which is a list of minimum standards for challenging the existing values or norms.[18] The International Relations were silenced about the feminism and women question for a long time. But with four new concern emerged in the international arena and then International Relations started to talk about the situation of women. The symbolization of power with gender and also some redefinitions of security, right and authority with the effect of women question; the damages of inter-state conflicts and regime changes on women; and rise of non-governmental organizations and women movements lead states have foreign policies which are effective on women question.[19] After the women question entered the international arena, there was an increase in women movements between states. Some Western states and non-governmetanl organizations started to impose women rights or human rights to other less developed countries, but this imposition of rights blocked with resistance from Third World countries. Accrding to Jacqui True this impositon of rights will give more damage to the women of these less developed countries.[20] D. Being a Citizen in Middle East: In this part of the paper I will explore the “women question” in Middle Eastern countries. I choose Afghanistan, and Egypt as case studies for the paper. I choose two different countries as case studies because the situation of women in countries differ country to country because the intrepation of women status in public differs. Before exploring the case states I would like to share some information about the status of women in pre-Islam era (Jahiliyyah) in Qur’an and in the view of Islamic fundamentalism. In pre-Islamic era women in Arab peninsula was treated as animals. They excluded from family if they could not give birth; they were invisible unless if they were from a noble family; they must not stay near men when they menstruated; the incest relations found acceptance in the public; women had no right of inheritance.[21] Islam is not only a religion but also a political system for it’s believers. It regulates daily life with the Shariah law. Lois Lamya al- Faruqi argued that in Quranic society there were five characteristics for the status of women in the society. First one is the equal status and worth of sexes in the issues of religious and ethical obligations, education, legal rights. Secondly there is a dual sex rather than unisex society, both sexes equal but not identical; there are some special responsiblities for the benefit of society. Thirdly there is a interdependence between men and women; they must complement each other rather than compete each other. Fourthly there is an extended family life which protect individuals from selfishness, allows women for career, insures socialization of children. Lastly Qur’an calls for a society in a patriarchal order, gives the decision making role to men.[22] After the independence from colonial powers in beginning of twentieth century, a group of educated, nationalist males started to advocate reform for women’s condition in the Muslim world. This group believed that Islam and modernity were compatible.[23] In the Muslim world there was also a fundamntalist group that against modernity of women status. But both of the modernist and fundamentalist groups used the “women question” in their interest to lessen the impacts of Western World. The fundamentalist in Islam World argued that the modernization of women means that a new type of Western imperialism. Western world tried to corrupt Islamic order by using the women’s right issue. The fundamentalist groups made a equivalence between feminism and cultural imperialism.[24] Fundamental groups receive the biggest support from newly urbanized middle and low class citizens, and they establish the biggest pressure on women in private spheres by families and patriarchal order of Islamic world.[25] Another group that challenges with the women’s status in Islamic world is the unveiled women. This group of women consisted from urbanized, educated, upper class women.[26] The last group in Middle Eastern countries which interested in women question is the Arab feminists. They have argued Islam is a gender-neutral system but because of the male dominated interpretation leads the unequal and suppressed status of the women.[27] Feminist struggle in the region become more harder because of fundamentalist groups, the antipathy against the West and their institutions. After these explanations of the general status in the region I want to mention about my case selection. I choose Afghanistan because it is a state under the condition of war, and Egypt because it is the most policy changer state that affecting women. In this part I will try to show you only the situation in the case states. I will mention the challenges to the current women’s rights regimes in the next part. a. Afghanistan: Afghanistan is one of the important states for colonial powers. It has been under British colony until 1919. On 1973 there was a secular republic but the civil unrest continuos. Soviet union started to invade on 1979 and it defeated by the Islamic armed groups that supported by United States of America. Until the United States invasion on 2001 Taliban governed the country. The invasion of United States still continues. After the invasion Afghanistan became an Islamic Republic and its president is Hamid Karzai. Afghanistan parliament which was elected in 2005 consisted by former mujahadeen, Taliban members, communists, reformists and Islamic fundementalists. 28% of he delegates are women. Minimum guaranteed percentage for women in the constitution is 25. This constitution guaranteed representation for women representatives in Afhanistan constitutes big irony after the oppression of Taliban government among women. But there are still limitations on women’s rights. The biggest limitation is among the education right. Some conservative parents does not allow their daughters to be taught by men. When we explore the 1999 statistics the literacy rate is 51% for males and 21% for females. The human rights issue is controversial in Afghanistan. Before the United States invasion Taliban government well known for numerous human rights abuses and also post-Taliban government seems unwilling to protect human rights. I must explore the Taliban regime and its treatment to women in order to understand the situation of Afghan women. In Taliban regime women were the most important targets. There were lots of restrictions among women in all arenas of the daily life. Women must wear “burqa” all the times and did not permit to go outside the house without a close male relative. There lots of restrictions on women mobility; they can not ride a taxi without a close relative, they can not ride bicycle, there was segregetion in public buses.[28] Another important ban among women was the employment code. On 1996 Taliban government prohibit women’s employment.[29] Women could only be doctors because male doctors did not treat female diseased. Women could not have any education after the age of 8. Other restrictions were: • Women must not speak loudly in public as no stranger should hear a woman’s voice • Ban on women dealing with male shoekeepers • Ban of using cosmetics • Ban on women’s presece in communication devices[30] Taliban regime did not only make these restrictions but also it gave several punisments who did not obey the restrictions. These punishments held publicly especially, in stadiums or important squares of the cities. Some of the punishments were; cutting fingers, stoning, whipping, tortures, and imprisonment. When we look at the post-Taliban government’s attitudes among women in constitutional and legal way they are respected to its women citizens. Women have freedom to educate, to work but they still must wear burqa. This limitation on dress code blocking women’s daily life very much. According to Ann Jones the reforms on laws of Afghanistan and all the international treaties as Universal Declaration of Human Rights and Convention on the Elimination of All forms of Violence Against Women become only paper with the burqa regulation on women. And also another violations that affect women are caused because of the weak infrastructure, weak healthcare and bad economic situation of the country.[31] Post-Taliban government can make women’s life more easier rather than Taliban regime but it can not prevent the domestic violence that 95% of Afghan women affected. Most of the young girls in rural forced to marry or sexually abused by their close relatives.[32] The government can not protect the women and girls in rural areas. b. Egypt: Arab Republic of Egypt governed by Mohammed Anwar El-Sadat since 1981. As I mentioned it before Egypt is the most policy changer state about the women’s rights issues. There are four main groups in Egpyt, namely fundementalists, modernists, feminists and conservatives, their pressure among policies affecting women changes in order to the leader. Before the exploration of current Egypt I will explore the old policies of the state among women. After the mid nineteenth century a secularization movement started in Egypt but this secularization did not affect the sphere of personal status law. This situation led a dilemma for women between their role as citizens of the state and as members of the religious community.[33] Margot Badran divide history of Egypt into four; the modern state-building and colonial period; the period of liberal experiment; the period of the revolution, Arabism and socialism; and the era of infitah, capitalism and populist Islamist ascendancy in order to explore the changes in effective pressure groups.[34] In the first period the feminist ideology newly structured in Egypt. State tried to have some openings by support of the liberal males, in women’s status in the public but patriarchal order blocked these improvements. In the second period feminist groups became more effective and also the fundamentalist groups started to raise among the public. There were more improvements in women’s status but feminists could not achieve any reform about personal status law and political rights. But also there were some common points that both feminists and fundamentalists met as the abolition of state sponsored prostitution. The third period was the suppression period by the state for both sides. State had a more secular tone with the effect of socialism and gave the women right to vote on 1956. In last period state led both of the sides but more tolerance to fundamentalists because of the Israeli-Egyptian peace. The rate of the women who wear hijab increased but also on 1979 some rights given to women about divorce regulations. All of the leaders of Egypt are used the “women question” in their own interests.[35] Women in Egypt improved its status in last decades with the help of it’s active women movements. The Female Genital Cutting is declared unlawful on 1997 and banned with all forms on 2007. Female genital cutting is all the procedures involving partial or total removal of the external female genitalia or other injury to the female genital organs whether for cultural, religious or other non-therapeutic reasons.[36]But the domestic violence, sexual harrasment and rape still continues and especially domestic violence does not count as a crime by the authorities.[37] E. Struggle for Being A Citizen: In this part I will try to show you the impacts of local and transnational non-governmental organizations and institutions on the solution “women question” in Middle Eastern countries. First I will explore the local women movements and than the international ones. a. Local Challenges: The women groups in Afghanistan struggled with both state, tribes and Islamic fundamentalists. The weak governments and the patriarchal order helps fundamentalists in suppressing women movements easily and blocking reforms about the status of women.[38] The women movements in Afghanistan is dating back to 1900s. First women group established on 1928 named Association for the Protection of Women by Siraj al-Banat and Queen Surayya. It’s aim was to encourage women to demand their rights and some reforms in order to improve women’s status. Second organization was Women’s Welfare Association established on 1946 by the monarchial state but on 1975 it became institutionally independent and renamed as Women Institute. Third one was established under the People’s Democratic Party of Afghanistan. It’s name was Women’s Democratic Organization of Afghanistan. When the Pepole’s Democratic Party of Afghanistan came in to power Women’sDemocratic Organization of Afghanistan started an aggressive reform campaign on marriage and literacy. On 1987 organization renamed itself as Afghan Women’s Council and departed from the party. The last organization established on 1977 Revolutionary Association of Women of Afghanistan. It is the first independent feminist organization in Afghanistan.[39] It’s goal achieve women’s equality within a socialist democratic Islamic republic.[40] First women organization of Egypt founded on 1920. Wafdist Women’s Central Committee’s aim was the full participation of women in decision-making. On 1923 Egyptian Feminist Union was founded bu Huda Sha’rawi. The union firstly interested in personal status law and education of women in Egypt. First feminst political party National Feminist Party founded on 1944 by some feminists who broke up from the union. On 1948 the Daughter of the Nile Union established with the aim of advocacy of women’s political rights. On 1959 with the pressures from state Egyptian Feminist Union renamed itself as Huda Sha’rawi Association, and in the same year after the right to vote for women achieved a new movement occured. Women’s Committee for Electoral Awarness aimed to educate women about their political rights. On 1980’s the most effective women organization in Egypt was Arab Women’s Solidarity Assocation. It registered as a non-govenmental organization by UN on 1985.[41] On 1996, a new women organization founded Egyptian Center for Women’s Rights. It is aim is to improve the political and legal status of women and eliminate all form of gender discrmination in the country.[42] The last women organization in Egypt is the National Council for Women which established on 2000. It’s aim is to empower the women in socially, economically and politically.[43] All of these local non-governmental organizations in both of the case states put pressure on their governments and also educate the women in their countries about their rights. In some era the feminist groups in countries suppressed by their governement but they never give up their fight about full equality of women and distract the international arena’s attention to the women’s rights violations in the region. b. International Challenges: International challenges to the “women question” in Middle East come from lots of Transnational Non-Governmental Oganizations and International Institutions as UN and its women specific organs, Amnesty International, Human Rights Watch, Freedom House. Amnesty International regularly give some press releases from its official web site and also started some campaigns and made its members join these campaigns. On 17 February 1999 they release a public statement about the Human Rights abuses against women.[44] The releases of Amnesty International is about every type of violation of rights. Amnesty International started two different campaigns about stopping the violence against women in Afghanistan on 13 November 2004[45] and warned international arena about the abuses and made them take their responsibilities about this situation.[46] Freedom House announce annual reports about all countries on human rights issues and made country ratings with a scale from 1 to 5. The ratings have five sections; non-discrimination and access to justice; autonomy, security and freedom of the person; economic rights and equal opportunity; political rights and civic voice; and social and cultural rights. In last report of Egypt, Freedom House gave 3.0 for nondiscrimination and Access to justice; 2.8 for autonomy, security and freedom of the person; 2.8 for economic rights and equal opportunity; 2.7 for political rights and civic voice; and 2.4 for social and cultural rights.[47] Author of the report Amira El- Azhary Sonbol made some recommendations for improving the human rights in Egypt to the government. Human Rights Watch has annual reports as Freedom House’s reports. In 1998 report it mentioned about the female genital cutting and the problems of custody of children in Egypt; and the Taliban suppression on women and girls in Afghanistan.[48] Human Rights Watch not only warn governments but also they warn international institutions too. For example in 2002 report it mentioned about the United States invasion to Afghanistan and warn institutions about the violations of rights.[49] The most effective international institution on women’s rights issue is the United Nations. As I mentioned before UN held lots of conferences among women question and had a Women’s Decade between 1975–1985. It has lots of conventions and declarations about the women issue such as; Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women on 1979 and Beijing Declaration on 1995. Laura Reanda claimed that all of these machineries in UN created for protection of women’s human rights but can not functioned effectively.[50] Donna J. Sullivan argued that in order to full implementation of Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women all of the party states must give up their reservations.[51] Apart these conventions or declarations of UN, it also has annual reports from its organs as UN Commission on the Status of Women under the Economic Social Council, United Nations Development Programme on countries. UN warned Afghanistan about the regulations of government on women in a draft resolution on 2002.[52] The transnational non-governmental organizations and international institutions struggle for the women in Middle East had lots of obstacles. Firstly nation-states who had sided in conventions or treaties does not bind themselves with these. International institutions can not put pressure on governments in order to realize reforms about women. All of these transnational non-governmental organizations or international institutions efforts and warning stayed in the papers most of the time. F. Conclusion: Nowadays trendy concept in Intenational Relations is the human rights. This Western concept gained importance after the World War II and became more effective on International Relations after the Cold War. Every state try to improve their own human rights and intervene others in order to improve their’s human rights. Human rights are general rights but you can specify other rights as children rights or women rights from it. Women; half of the world, only reproduction chance of human kind, has little or no worth in some parts of the world. Middle East is one these regions that does not give any worth to the women. Women in Middle East try to become a citizen in their countries with the obstacles of being a women. Being women in Middle East means suppression which begin in the family and expand to whole state. If you born in a lucky period you can get education but it does not clear that how many years you can continue your education. Everything in the state rely on the leader personality and ideology in Middle East. As I mentioned before Egypt change its policies which affect women lots of time. Beyond leaders personalities international arena can sometimes suppress women indirectly, as we seen in Afghanistan. In Soviet invasion United States supported some Islamic Armed Groups and than Taliban the most suppressive regime on women came to power. There are several women organizations in Middle East and also the other international ones interested in Middle Eastern women too. A woman can not achieve any thing about improve the status of women in the region while segregating in buses from men. In order to improve their status women in Middle East found lots of organizations since begining of twentieth century. “To what extent can women use the women rights in their political struggle in Middle Eastern Countries'” is my centre question for this paper. I will try to give an answer for this question. Women in the region try to break the walls that built around her by patriarchal order. The precious pearls – a phrase that explain the women’s worth used by fundamentalists- want to see sunlight with their own eyes not under a veil. Women try to gain women’s rights in order to share the life with whole society. In both of case states- Afghanistan and Egypt- women achieved their political rights, their employment or education rights but the dressing habits limit women’s daily life and also the domestic violence in both countries can not be prevented by the state. All of the rights that given to women in Middle East stay in papers, while practising the rights women crash into walls of patriarchal order and try again and again… G. Bibliography: • Bryson Valerie, “Feminism”in Contemporary Political Ideologies, ed. by Roger Eatwell and Anthony Wright, London, Pinter,(1999),p.206-230 • Hosken Fran P., “Toward a Definition of Women’s Human Rights” , Human Rights Quartetly, Vol. 3 No. 2, (May,1981), p.1-10 • Bunch Charlotte , “Women’s Rights as Human Rights: Toward a Re-Viaion of Human Rights”, Human Rights Quartetly, Vol.12 No.4, (November 1990), p.486-498 • “Vienna Declaration of Human Rights”, Population and Development Review, Vol.19 No.4, (December 1993), p.877-882 • UN Economic and Social Council “Report of the Commission on the Status of Women on its thirty-seven session”, Vienna, (17-26 March 1993) • Sullivan Donna J., “Women’s Human Rights and the 1993 World Conference on Human Rights”, The American Journal of International Law, Vol.88 No.1, (January 1994), p.152-167 • Ackerly Brooke A. and Okin Moller Susan , “Feminist Social Critism and the International Movement for Women’s Rights as Human Rights” in Democracy’s Edges, ed. by Ian Shapiro and Casiano Hacker-Curdén (Cambridge University Press, 1999), p.134-158 • “Political Ideologies”, in Political Science an Introduction, ed. by Michael Roskin et al., New Jersey, Prentice-Hall, (1997), p.98-123 • Halliday Fred, “Hidden from International Relations: Women and the International Arena”, in Rethinking International Relations, Macmillan, Houndmills, (1994), p.147-169 • True Jacqui, “Feminism”, in Theories of International Relations ed. by Scoot Burchill et. al, Macmillan, London, (1996), p. 210-245 • Güngör Önder, Siyasal İslamda Bölünmeler, Sarmal, İstanbul, (1997) •