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Intelligence - Ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations. - Rational thought and reasoning - The ability to act purposefully in an environment - The ability to deal with the situations, in an effective manner, within an environment - Sternberg: Intelligence is the cognitive ability of an individual to learn from experience, to reason well, to remember important information, and to cope up with the demands of daily living. Theories of Intelligence a. G or G-Factor - is a statistic used in psychometrics to model the mental ability underlying results of various tests of cognitive ability. Developed in 1904 by psychologist Charles Spearman to account for imperfect correlations in IQ tests, this model is considered the first theory of intelligence. - He found a trend for all such tests to correlate positively with each other called Positive Manifold. - Spearman found that a single common factor explained the positive correlations among test. - He interpreted it as the core of human intelligence that, to a larger or smaller degree, influences success in all cognitive tasks and thereby creates the positive manifold. b. Fluid and crystallized Intelligence - (abbreviated Gf and Gc, respectively) are factors of general intelligence originally identified by Raymond Cattell. - Fluid intelligence or fluid reasoning is the capacity to think logically and solve problems in novel situations, independent of acquired knowledge. It is the ability to analyze novel problems, identify patterns and relationships that underpin these problems and the extrapolation of these using logic. It is necessary for all logical problem solving, especially scientific, mathematical and technical problem solving. Fluid reasoning includes inductive reasoning and deductive reasoning. - Crystallized intelligence is the ability to use skills, knowledge, and experience. It should not be equated with memory or knowledge, but it does rely on accessing information from long-term memory. c. Cattell-Horn-Carroll Theory (CHC) - is an amalgamation of two similar theories about the content and structure of human cognitive abilities. The first of these two theories is Gf-Gc theory and the second is Carroll's Three-Stratum theory. Rather than viewing intelligence as a unitary entity, they consider it to be a multidimensional concept that includes different types of intelligence. A hierarchy of factors is used. G is at the top. Under it there are 10 broad abilities that in turn are subdivided into 70 narrow abilities. • Broad Abilities: - Fluid Intelligence (Gf): Reflects information-processing capabilities, reasoning, and memory. - Crystallized Intelligence (Gc): is the accumulation of information, skills, and strategies that people have learned through experience and that they can apply in problem – solving situations. - Quantitative Reasoning (Gq): the ability to comprehend quantitative concepts and relationships and to manipulate numerical symbols. - Reading & Writing Ability (Grw): includes basic reading and writing skills. - Short-Term Memory (Gsm): is the ability to apprehend and hold information in immediate awareness and then use it within a few seconds. - Long-Term Storage and Retrieval (Glr): is the ability to store information and fluently retrieve it later in the process of thinking. - Visual Processing (Gv): is the ability to perceive, analyze, synthesize, and think with visual patterns, including the ability to store and recall visual representations. - Auditory Processing (Ga): is the ability to analyze, synthesize, and discriminate auditory stimuli, including the ability to process and discriminate speech sounds that may be presented under distorted conditions. - Processing Speed (Gs): is the ability to perform automatic cognitive tasks, particularly when measured under pressure to maintain focused attention. - Decision/Reaction Time/Speed (Gt): reflect the immediacy with which an individual can react to stimuli or a task (typically measured in seconds or fractions of seconds; not to be confused with Gs, which typically is measured in intervals of 2–3 minutes). Modern tests do not necessarily measure of all of these broad abilities. For example, Gq and Grw may be seen as measures of school achievement and not IQ. Gt may be difficult to measure without special equipment. g was earlier often subdivided into only Gf and Gc which were thought to correspond to the Nonverbal or Performance subtests and Verbal subtests in earlier versions of the popular Wechsler IQ test. More recent research has shown the situation to be more complex. d. Theory of Multiple Intelligence - was proposed by Howard Gardner in 1983 as a model of intelligence that differentiates intelligence into various specific (primarily sensory) modalities, rather than seeing it as dominated by a single general ability. This led Gardner to break intelligence down into at least eight different components: - Musical Intelligence: skills in tasks involving music - Bodily Kinesthetic Intelligence: skills in using the whole body or various portions of it in the solution of problems or in the construction of products or displays, exemplified by dancers, athletes, actors, and surgeons - Logical-mathematical Intelligence: problem solving and scientific thinking - Linguistic Intelligence: involved in production and use of language - Spatial Intelligence: spatial configurations, such as those used by artists and architects - Interpersonal Intelligence: interacting with others, such as sensitivity to the moods, temperaments, motivations, and intentions of others - Intrapersonal Intelligence: knowledge of the internal aspects of oneself; access to one’s own feelings and emotions. - Naturalist Intelligence: ability to identify and classify patterns in nature e. Triarchic Theory of Intelligence - was formulated by Robert J. Sternberg, a prominent figure in the research of human intelligence. The theory by itself was groundbreaking in that it was among the first to go against the psychometric approach to intelligence and take a more cognitive approach. - Sternberg’s definition of human intelligence is (a) mental activity directed toward purposive adaptation to, selection and shaping of, real-world environments relevant to one’s life, which means that intelligence, is how well an individual deals with environmental changes throughout their lifespan. Sternberg’s theory comprises three parts: - Componential/Analytic intelligence comprises the mental processes through which intelligence is expressed. - Experiential/Creative intelligence is necessary when an individual is confronted with a challenge that is nearly, but not entirely, novel or when an individual is engaged in automat zing the performance of a task. Practical/Contextual intelligence is bound in a socio-cultural milieu and involves adaptation to, selection of, and shaping of the environment to maximize fit in the context