Bases_for_Learning_and_Teaching_Pgce

1. | As teachers, we gather a great deal of information about how students learn from our observations in the classroom. However, this information sometimes needs to be reinforced through more critical evaluation based on theoretical approaches. Torraco (1997:115) defines theory as “a theory simply explains what a phenomenon is and how it works.” I aim for this assignment to explore a number of theories in relation to student motivation, learning styles and teaching approaches. It is recognised that students learn in many different ways. Psychologists and educationalists have attempted to investigate the reasons behind this and to formulate methodologies to maximise learning potential in all learners. | 2. | There are several types of learning. I believe that the most basic form is associative learning, where learning happens through making a new association between an event and the environment. From reading I have identified that there are two type of associative learning; classical conditioning and operant conditioning. | 3. | Some early research into learning and memory began with the experiments of Ivan Pavlov (1927), who stumbled upon what is now known as classical conditioning through research into the digestive system of dogs. Pavlov noted that the dogs he was using as subjects would salivate before being fed. He began ringing a bell prior to feeding time and this presentation of a neutral stimulus (the bell) along with a stimulus of some significance (the food) he called the ‘unconditioned stimulus’ (UCS) which evoked the ‘unconditioned response’ (UCR) i.e. the salivation. After presentation of the UCS in this way for some time, the salivation would become a ‘conditioned response’ (CR). He also noted that when the subject learns that the conditioned stimulus no longer signals a desired event, the process is reversed because the connections between the two are weakened. | 4. | The theory that learning could be manipulated, measured and utilised was further developed by John Watson. Watson conducted experiments on a young child, 11 month old ‘Little Albert’, in order to evidence conditioned responses through the association of loud noises and a white rat. Albert went on to associate more generalised fear of white furry objects such as rabbits, dogs and fur coats. The implications of this experiment suggested that classical conditioning could cause some phobias in humans. Both Pavlov and Watson believed that the learner is passive in the learning process.As Atherton states behaviourists believe that “Learning is really about the increased probability of a behaviour based on reinforcement which has taken place in the past, so that the antecedents of the new behaviour include the consequences of previous behaviour.” http://www.learningandteaching.info/learning/behaviour.htm | 5. | Operant conditioning is a theory based on the idea that behaviours that are positively reinforced will continue and behaviours that are punished will end. The term operant conditioning was originated by BF Skinner who believed that the focus should be on external, therefore observable, causes of behaviour rather than to focus on internal thoughts and motivation. Prior to Skinner, theorists were interested in general behaviour, Skinner was the first to consider this in terms of education and how we learn. He believed that the learner plays an active role in their learning, although the environment and subject matter is controlled by the teacher. Learning is very much teacher led as opposed to teacher centred. The difference between classical and operant conditioning is that operant conditioning produces a voluntary response whilst with classical conditioning the response is involuntary. These theories are recognised as behaviourist theories. As Atherton states:“In educational settings, behaviourism implies the dominance of the teacher, as in behaviour modification programmes. It can, however, be applied to an understanding of unintended learning.”Atherton J S (2011) Learning and Teaching; Behaviourism | 6. | If as a teacher you look to implementing the theory of John Watson, you can aim to reduce or remove the fear of the learner to promote learning. For example, if a student has a fear of maths, by teaching sensitively you can build the confidence of the learner and eliminate the fear of the subject. On joining my class in September one of my ESOL learners had a fear of reading as she felt that she couldn’t do it. By teaching with sensitivity to her fear, by setting smaller achievable targets and building her confidence with support and encouragement, she is no longer so fearful and has the confidence to now be able to read simple sentences independently. | 7. | Whilst it is helpful to use this theory in recognising the importance of acknowledging fear and to help us, as teachers to effectively deal with it, the theory assumes that the learner is passive. Behaviourist theories look to modify behaviour to an ideal. “Learning is brought about by an association between the desired responses and the reinforcement (rewards and punishments) through a system of success and failure indicators. Such responses become more complex as the learner grows, in a linear process.” A Rogers , Teaching Adults (2007: 89) | 8. | It would be unrealistic for a teacher to assume that all behaviour can be modified. I believe that this removes the practice of inclusivity and is largely a teacher centred approach to learning, more suited to a ‘chalk and talk’ teaching style which is largely inappropriate for teaching ESOL and is more suitable for practical subjects. The communication in this style of teaching is liner. I believe that in ESOL we sometimes teach in a behaviourist manner when we endeavour to explain grammar rules or gap fill questions where there is only one correct answer. Whilst I recognise the importance of formative meaningful feedback in order to increase both learner confidence and therefore learning it is important to remember that learning cannot be anticipated nor can it be expected within a certain time frame. This is especially true for language acquisition. Not all students learn at the same rate and the needs of the individual learners need to be taken into consideration. This linear way of teaching is not a suitable practice for subjects in which points may have to be revisited on numerous occasions before the knowledge is successfully assimilated by the learner. Behaviourists believe that learning should be a step by step process and should build on previously learnt material. Some critics of this theory believe that there is a danger that learning which is not being observed will be ignored for example learners may show an understanding of a topic which is not being directly taught in that session. Lesson plans have objectives which state what students should be able to do by the end of the session suggest that the behaviourist approach in being used as behavioural objectives are intended to measure outcomes. Although by using differentiation within our lesson plans, therefore taking into account our students individual needs and stating how these can be met, teachers can lessen this. The behaviourist approach does not credit learners as having any prior learning or relevant experience. From my experience I believe this to be incorrect and only by knowing your students can you ascertain whether they have any prior knowledge of the subject matter. In the case of my students they have a great deal of knowledge which is used in order to help them acquire a new language. As many ESOL students have experienced life in the UK before attending classes they already have acquired some language, though additional vocabulary and grammatical structuring is needed. | 9. | Wertheimer, Kohler and Koffler founded the Gestalt School of psychology in the 1920s. The Gestalt theory looks at how learners see patterns as a whole. The theory concludes that the way we look at things and the way in which we perceive them depend on our own past experiences or insight.http://www.learningandteaching.info/learning/gestalt.htmFor example the image above is either seen as a vase or two humans facing each other. It is usual to see one or the other but not usual to see both at the same time. Our brains try to work out what is background and what is foreground. How does it decide' You use your existing knowledge to try to make sense of what you are seeing. From a Gestalt perspective learning is a complex process of inter- relationships which occur as a result of engaging in a new problem using previous experiences to solve it. | 10. | Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget (1896-1980) believed so strongly in the effects of education that he declared: “Only education is capable of saving our societies from possible collapse, whether violent, or gradual." (Piaget, 1934). He is the best known cognitive theorists who believed that as humans, we create meaning from an interaction between our experiences and our ideas. This means that any new knowledge we gain must be connected in some way to our existing schemata. Cognitivists believe that the learner plays an active part in their learning. It is a learner centred approach to teaching and that in order to increase their knowledge the learner must have some existing previous knowledge which to build on. The cognitivist teacher acts as a facilitator helping the learner to scaffold their knowledge. Cognitivists look to investigate the internal mental process of thought and look to use a variety of methods to aid learning, such as; visual processing, memory, problem solving and language. A cognitive teacher will look to ways to adapt learner methods to best suit the needs of the learner, for example: visual, kinaesthetic, audio and will differentiate learning materials. Communication flows in both directions and students are encourage to participate. | 11. | When studying to teach English to non-English speakers we are taught to activate schemata of the learner at the beginning of a new topic. This can be done by using a piece of music, a picture or a video clip. The aim of this is for the students to think about the topic and bring forward their own ideas which can then be added to as the session progresses. Students my already have existing knowledge on the topic and it is important to get ideas from the learner and not to suppose that the teacher knows everything and the student has no prior knowledge. I believe that it is important to remember that students have their own life experiences and have acquired knowledge themselves. In my experience students often have more knowledge or experience with some topics than the teacher and it is only the English that the students require learning. As students have ideas and experiences it is my belief that as a teacher I should help them develop the language they need in order to express themselves clearly. For example when covering the topic of travel I discovered that my students knew more about air travel than I and it was the English vocab they needed to develop. | 12. | Piaget studied cognitive development in children and asserted that the actions of the child in attempting to adapt to the environment leads to a specific ‘schema’ or behaviour. These behaviours can then be transferred to other situations and the child can therefore build on their experiences and by incorporating new pieces of experiential learning. Although somewhat prescriptive in his description of stages of development, the idea of a development of skills over time has influenced curriculum planning. I would question whether this ensures inclusivity as expectations to achieve at each stage are rigid. Teachers need to create a learning environment which allows learners with different experiences to form ideas:“Cognitive development is a cumulative process. The hierarchical nature requires the formation of lower-order schemata on which more advanced work can be built. If, therefore, cognitive frameworks depend on what has preceded, it is important to regulate the difficulty level and order of presentation of material”Child D (2007:79)I believe that this is particularly important when writing schemes of work and lesson plans. The belief that by following a curriculum, learners will successfully complete a course of study and thereby are ready for summative assessment is unrealistic. | 13. | During my time within the ESOL department I have become aware that student absence is higher than the national benchmark. It is currently at 55% (appendix 1 - SNC ESOL SAR). This is due to the barriers which prevent students attending; as well as their attitude towards education. Adults have problems with childcare, their applications to remain in the UK, trauma from their past, continued worry for family and friends who remain, physical and mental health problems. This means that ESOL learners can often miss vital material upon which higher level work is dependent. The use of ILPs to track students’ progress is therefore even more important, as well as ensuring that schemes of work are iterative documents and reflect on-going progress, as much as they are geared towards assessment criteria. This spiral curriculum ensures that key topics are regularly revisited, to not only reinforce but also to build connections between the different topics. As a team the ESOL department regularly look to improve existing schemes of work and look to adapt them to meet the needs of the learner. | 14. | The move in the last twenty years towards more contextualised learning can be seen as having been influenced in some part by constructivism, which:[…] stresses that all knowledge is context bound, and that individuals make personal meaning of their learning experiences. Thus, learning cannot be separated from the context in which it is used.Knowles M (2005:142) | 15. | The use of realia, authentic texts and topics based on learners’ experiences should, therefore, always be considered resources of particular worth. Jerome Bruner (1915-) suggested that any learning is possible given sufficiently well organized instruction. According to Bruner, learners create a hierarchy of related categories with each level becoming more specific. It involves the learner confronting problems and being able to try out solutions on the basis of enquiry and previous learning under the guidance of the teacher. This notion of ‘scaffolding’ information can be seen in Benjamin Bloom’s “The Taxonomy of Educational Objectives, The Classification of Educational Goals (1956) in which the classification of learning objectives were identified within the cognitive, affective and psychomotor domains. Students need to be given the opportunity to achieve at each level of the pyramid in order to be able to move to the next level. I believe that it is important teachers to remember that not all learners will achieve the same level of understanding at the same time. If a teacher is aware of the needs of the students they will be able to implement differentiation in their learning material in order to facilitate learning. When planning lessons I try to include differentiation in the material I use and aim to be inclusive in my teaching (appendix 2). | 16. | The humanist theory is an approach to learning which views it as a personal act in order to fulfil one’s own potential. Humanism sees the role of the teacher to be that of a facilitator. Learning is made possible through the active encouragement of the learners in the world around them. A teacher can facilitate this by increasing exposure to a range of experiences. It views it as more effective to use students’ real experiences as resources with which to activate their interest in the subject. Recent lessons I have taught have included the use of photographs customs and celebrations in the students’ home countries comparing them with UK customs to base speaking and writing activities around. Student’s work is displayed in the classroom to instil a feeling of ownership of the learning environment in the students. The teacher can therefore take a less educational approach in the classroom and instead simply facilitate the students’ learning. The humanist approach is student centred. Rogers (1983:119) considered teaching as the “…facilitation of learning with the focus on interpersonal relationships between learner and teacher based on trust.” | 17. | One of the main humanist theorists is Malcolm Knowles. Knowles recognised that adults and children have different learning needs and motivations. The theory of andragogy is an attempt to develop a theory specifically for adult learning. Knowles believes that adults are self-directed and expect to take responsibility for decisions for their learning. They differ from children as they have experiences, not necessarily related to the subject being taught, but that this knowledge and experience may aid the understanding of the new topic being taught. Knowles’ theory of andragogy assumes that adult learners have: * The need to know — adult learners need to know why they need to learn something before undertaking to learn it. * Learner self-concept —adults need to be able to be responsible for their own decisions and are capable of self-direction. * Role of learners' experience —adult learners have a variety of life experiences. These experiences may affect learners’ attitudes to learning. Adult learners may have barriers to learning which have resulted from these life experiences. * Readiness to learn —adults are ready to learn the things they need to know in order to cope effectively with life situations. * Orientation to learning —adults are motivated to learn if they believed that it will help them perform tasks/achieve aims in their lives. | 18. | Gould J states that “Kolb maintains that we can only learn through experience, but only if we process that experience and make sense of it.” | 19. | I agree that we need to reflect in order to improve. Teachers as well as students must reflect on what they learn in order for it to be of use. By reflecting we are able to make sense of what we learn so that is no longer just words on a page or new information we have heard. If on reflection we make sense and ‘link’ the information to what we already know we are then able to explore more possibilities.“The professional is someone who is continuously developing his or her underpinning knowledge through reflection on their own (and others’) progress”Gray, Griffin and Nasta (2000) | 20. | Educational establishments which have this approach at the heart of their philosophy include those built on the humanistic approach of Rudolf Steiner (1861-1925). Steiner believed that learning should be interdisciplinary and that imagination, through play or artistic subjects, was key to effective learning at the child’s own pace. Steiner schools exist to this day with curricula designed with a great degree of freedom, unlike the state school system which must adhere to the National Curriculum and which ‘measures’ children against prescribed milestones through testing from an early age. | 21. | I believe that a potential issue with this approach with lower level ESOL learners is due to their cultural and/or educational background. Play and imagination in early years is taken for granted in the UK, yet many students I have encountered have not had this opportunity. In my experience many ESOL learners find it extremely difficult to imagine situations and the idea of a role play and pretending is alien to them. For example, in one of my recent classes my students were asked as part of some writing exam practice to write a letter to their brother, one of my students said that he couldn’t do it as he hasn’t got a brother. In one of my classes I have had experience of students being unable to understand what to do with a jigsaw puzzle. Even when it was explained to them that they had to recreate the image on the box from the pieces in front of them, they tried to force the pieces together. Other educational games I have also found to be an issue for example ‘hangman’. Due to the backgrounds of my learners it would be unsuitable to use the traditional image used so I use a house and the concept of the game required many examples and explanations. It is therefore important when planning to use such activities that you plan adequate time in your lesson plan and carefully consider the way in which you will explain the activity. You must also consider whether it is appropriate for the group you are teaching and make changes if necessary. | 22. | When planning my lessons I have to take into account my students’ own previous experiences of learning. Some ESOL do not have any experience of learning in their home country, so the idea of study is new to them. In my experience it can take many weeks to reinforce the need to bring a notebook and pen to class. Many of those who have received a formal education in their home country have experienced a very different classroom environment to that in a UK FE educational setting. These students have experience of a very teacher centred learning environment and have fixed preconceptions of what learning should be. That students can recognise that learning can be fun and that they as students can express their own ideas is not to be taken as a given. It is therefore important to know your students educational background in order that you may overcome any barriers to learning. | 23. | Although it is important to make learning enjoyable, and to draw on the students’ own strengths and interests in order to plan lessons, it is unfortunate that in FE achievement against pre-set assessment criteria in an agreed timeframe is necessary in order to obtain funding. Therefore teachers must balance the individual needs of the students against the funding requirements of the courses on which they teach. | 24. | ESOL delivery and assessment has been linked to the core curriculum since the publication of Fresh Start – the report compiled by Sir Claus Moser, former chairman of the Basic Skills Agency in 1999. It set out to be: A report on how “to tackle the vast basic skills problem in this country”. A Fresh Start – improving literacy and numeracy, known as the Moser Report, stated that up to 7 million adults in England have difficulties with literacy and numeracy – a larger proportion than in any other western country apart from Poland and Ireland. The qualification and Curriculum Authority (QCA) subsequently produced a set of national standards in each of the three basic skills areas; literacy, numeracy and ESOL, which set out the requirements for all three areas and every skill at all levels, from pre-entry to level 2 in the national qualification framework. These curriculum standards endeavoured to ensure that all language needs were addressed prior to achievement and that a bank of internationally recognised qualifications could be agreed and provision standardised. As a team we agreed to use a topic based approach which focused on the areas covered by the core curriculum and the qualifications the students are working towards. | 25. | When planning lessons you should implement numeracy, literacy and IT where possible. I have devised lessons which include numeracy and IT. (appendix 3) Including numeracy in your class can be anything from asking students to complete a class survey and counting the results to lessons including timetables, telling the time or counting students into groups. I try to use ILT in a variety of ways including PowerPoint presentations, video clips, audio clips, interactive games and individual use of ICT on classroom based computers. These methods facilitate learning opportunities for students with a variety of learning styles for the learners to engage in. When teaching superlatives I have produced a lesson in which the students use the computers available in the classroom to access the Guinness Book of World Records www.guinnessworldrecords.com . I have then asked them to find the tallest man, longest river etc. I have then directed them to formulate their own questions.Another example of using numeracy which I have used was during a lesson on housework. Certain jobs around the house were given a value. Students were asked to work out how many hours they spent on each task and calculate how much they would be paid for the work they do in the house. I have also produced a lesson for an Entry 1 class where the students have to answer questions – how much' How many' For example how many apples are there on a PowerPoint slide' Another exercise which I find works well is asking students to furnish a room or plan a holiday on a budget. Students can use catalogues and brochures or use the computers to access websites. | 26. | From completing this assignment and using my reflective journal (appendix 4) I am able to look at what I need to consider in order to improve my teaching. Reflecting on my teaching is imperative in order to improve. I must also take into consideration the ideas of my peers and understand that I can use their advice and ideas and implement them in my own session planning. When I reflect on my teaching I am able to look at ways of improving and making changes to my teaching style to become more effective at facilitating the students learning. | 27. | For this submission we produced a presentation on learning theories in pairs (appendix 5). We then presented our ideas to the group. I found this extremely informative, as although we were looking at the same theories we each had differing views and our own ideas of how these theories were used within our specialist subjects. Working collaboratively is important in that we can all learn from each other. On a recent study day at the university we were all asked to attend a session with others from our subject areas. We then had to talk about different resources we used in our classes. I found this useful and was able to take some ideas back to the classroom. Also I was reminded of the necessity to ensure that you look for various ways to use your resources. As I spend a lot of time in making resources I now need to ensure that I am able to use them more than once. | 28. | By doing this course and completing this assignment I have been able to determine my style of teaching. Whilst I aim to be humanistic in my teaching I believe that I do occasionally teach in a behaviourist manner. In order to improve my own approach as a teacher I need to focus more on the learning of the students rather than my teaching methods. Whilst I try to be student centred I realise that I need to focus more on what my learners are learning. I need to be able to take a step back and rely on my learners being able to work the answers out for themselves. As I teach mainly Entry 1 ESOL learners I find it difficult to always maintain the balance of encouraging the students and letting them make discoveries for themselves. By letting the students become overly reliant on me I feel that I am in some way controlling them and their learning. I look to further develop my teaching style in order to become more student centred in my approach. | 29. | I have also come to understand that whilst I may not agree with all aspects of each of the theories I am able to recognise that whilst as a teacher you may favour one of the theories in your style of teaching other theories do make an impact. Before I completed this assignment I would have said that I was in no way behaviourist in my teaching. I can now appreciate that this is not true. By knowing and recognising the theories and how they affect your teaching you can make improvements. I now believe that as a teacher you cannot follow one theory exclusively. Other factors will affect your teaching style, for example; your own personality, funding obligations, your subject or your students. It is therefore necessary for a teacher to understand their own personality and motivations as well as knowing their students. To conclude I believe that each of the theories have their own merits and their suitability must be judged depending on the subject which is being taught and the learners. |