An_End_to_Segregation

African-Americans - An End to Segregation and Discrimination The Fight for Civil Rights Ed Ferrer HIS 204: American History Since 1865 Instructor: Laverne Peralta October 29, 2012 African-Americans - An End to Segregation and Discrimination The Fight for Civil Rights From the time that they arrived to the New World, African Americans have gone through a series of adversities. They’ve worked very hard to end slavery, segregation isolation and discrimination for good. Segregation is the practice of keeping ethnic, racial, religious, or gender groups separate, especially by enforcing the use of separate schools, transportation, housing, and other facilities, and usually discriminating against a minority group. Isolation is the process of separating somebody or something from others, or the fact of being alone and separated from others. With the help of prominent leaders, African Americans joined as one in their struggle for freedom, equal rights, segregation and discrimination by forming their own institutions for education, churches and fraternal orders, and finally the Civil Rights Movement. The establishment and growth of the colonies in the new world saw an increase in production of the tobacco, also known as the “cash crop.” Landowners growing tobacco in the American colonies had originally met their need for forced labor by enslaving a limited number of Natives, and "hiring" many European indentured servants. In exchange for their transportation to cross the Atlantic, the servants committed to work for the landowner for 4 to 7 years, after which they became free. In 1619, the first black indentured servants arrived in Jamestown in the colony of Virginia. They had been captured in Africa and were sold at auction into a period of servitude. Although the first blacks in Virginia were considered and listed as servants, like the white indentured servants brought from Europe, they were viewed as being different from white servants, they were treated differently, and in fact were basically slaves. Slavery quickly developed into a regular institution in the New World and with it the development of racial feelings that accompanied the inferior position of blacks in America for the next 350 years (Zinn, 2005). With the spread of tobacco farming in the 1670's, and the diminishing number of people willing to sign-on as indentured servants in the 1680's, increasing numbers of slaves were brought in from Africa. They replaced Native American slaves, who were found to be susceptible to European diseases (Becker, 1999). Slavery was now a more attractive proposition to early colonial landowners. In 1638, "the price tag for an African male was around $27.00 while the salary of a European laborer was about 70 cents per day" (Becker, 1999). During the mid-1600's, the colonies began to pass laws called slave codes in order to control the slaves. The codes varied from colony to colony but they basically prohibited slaves from owning weapons, receiving an education, meeting one another or in groups, moving about without the permission of their masters, and testifying against white people in court. In 1663, Virginia passed a law, which was upheld by the court, that a child born to an enslaved mother is also a slave. Slaves also received a harsher punishment for crimes than white people (Zinn, 2005). The passing of the slave codes soon gave way to protests by religious groups, particularly the Quakers, to the wrongs of slavery and their treatment. Slaves also began to protest their conditions by non-violent means such as working slower, breaking essential tools, purposely damaging harvested crops, etc. They eventually turned to violent means of protest by burning tobacco barns, poisoning their owners using arsenic or poisonous spiders or gathering a mob and participating in rebellions. The rebellions that took place were just enough to create a fear among white landowners to the point that slaves were separated on the plantation and new slave codes were established. By 1770, about 400,000 slaves lived in the colonies with the majority living in the South, primarily due to the development of plantations that grew rice, tobacco, sugar cane and cotton. In contrast, there were about 40,000 free blacks in the American Colonies which included runaway slaves, descendants of early indentured servants, and black immigrants from the West Indies (Zinn, 2005). The Revolutionary War led to new attitudes about slavery, especially among whites in the North. The war inspired a spirit of liberty and an appreciation for the service of the black soldiers, which numbered about 5,000. For this reason, some Northern legislatures adopted laws during the late 1700's that provided for the immediate or gradual end of slavery. After the Revolutionary War, numerous free blacks found jobs in tobacco plants, textile mills, shipyards and other manual labor positions. As the American colonies began to form the Union, several questions were raised regarding the relationship of the new Constitution of the United States and the institution of slavery. A close look at the Constitution reveals the vague language pertaining to the holding of slaves, since the words "slave" and "slavery" were never used in the document. The Framers debated over the extent to which slavery would be included, permitted, or prohibited. In the end, they created a document of compromise that represented the interests of the nation as they knew it and predicted it to be in the future. The two compromise clauses in the United States Constitution that dealt with the issue of slavery are Article I, Section 9 which basically states that the importation of “such Persons” (slaves) will cease in 1808 and Article IV, Section 2 which states that an escaped slave must be returned to his rightful owner, even if discovered in a free state. By the early 1800's, Northern states had taken steps to end slavery while it began to develop deeper roots in the South due to the invention of the cotton gin. The gin removed the seeds from cotton as fast as 50 people working by hand and contributed more to the growth of slavery. The gin enabled farmers to meet the rising demand for cotton. As a result, the Southern cotton industry expanded, and cotton became the chief crop in the region. The planters needed more and more workers to pick and bale the cotton, which led to large increases in the slave population (Becker, 1999). Throughout the 19th century, slaves protested against their harsh conditions and cruel treatment using rebellion tactics such as destroying property, running away, pretending illness, and disobeying orders. Major slave protests included armed revolts and mutinies with the most famous being led by Nat Turner, a slave and preacher. The revolt broke out in 1831 in Southampton County in Virginia and resulted in 60 white deaths and at least 100 black deaths, including Nat Turner himself. On the other side of the spectrum, free blacks were subjected to being treated as inferior by most whites. Many hotels, restaurants, theaters, and other public places barred them. Few states gave free blacks the right to vote. The children of most free blacks had to attend separate schools while some colleges and universities, such as Bowdoin (Maine) and Oberlin (Ohio), admitted black students. But the limited number of admissions led to the opening of black colleges, including Lincoln University in Pennsylvania in 1854 and Wilberforce University in Ohio in 1856 (Becker, 1999). The rising number of free blacks became a cause for concern with the whites and restrictions were enacted. As an example, in parts of New England free blacks could not visit any town without a pass. They also needed permission to entertain slaves in their homes. In the South, free blacks could be enslaved if caught without proper proof that they were free. Fears that free blacks would lead slave revolts encouraged almost all states to pass laws severely limiting the right of free blacks to own weapons (Williams, 2009). By 1860, the nation had about 490,000 free blacks and most of them faced such severe discrimination that they were little better off than the slaves (Becker, 1999). In 1857, a ruling of the Supreme Court of the United States in the case of Dred Scott v. Sandford, made slavery legal in all U.S. territories. Scott was a slave whose master had taken him from a slave state (Missouri) to a free state and a free territory, then back to Missouri. Scott sued for his freedom in Missouri in 1846, claiming his residence in a free state and a free territory made him free. The opinion of Chief Justice Roger B. Taney declared that Scott was not entitled to rights as a U.S. citizen because no person descended from an American slave could ever been a citizen, and had no rights which any white man was bound to respect. Taney and six other justices also struck down the Missouri Compromise as unconstitutional, maintaining that Congress had no power to prohibit slavery in the territories (Dred Scott, 1857). This decision was a clear victory for the South, a setback in civil rights for all blacks, increased Northern antislavery sentiment, and fed the sectional strife that led to war in 1861. By 1860, about 4 million slaves lived in the South. In April of 1861, the country was engaged in the Civil War. The probable main cause of the war was states rights which included the institution of slavery. In January of 1863, the Emancipation Proclamation was a step forward by the Union government to acknowledge that slavery was wrong. The document was welcomed with open arms by abolitionists such as Frederick Douglass, the north felt that there was a new purpose for the war to be won and free blacks were excited that their people would be free from Southern bondage. But were the slaves really free' The Emancipation Proclamation freed all slaves in the rebellious states but never mentioned the slaves in the states loyal to the Union. In reality, the document was illegal as the Union had no jurisdiction in the Confederacy to establish laws. During the war, free blacks once again fought valiantly even though they were segregated from the white troops and continued to endure prejudice. Units such as the all colored 54th Massachusetts were led by white officers and proved themselves throughout the war in many battles such as the assault on Fort Wagner in South Carolina. After the Civil War ended in 1865, Radical Republicans in Congress attempted to protect blacks’ rights by passing the Civil Rights Act of 1866, which declared that people born in the United States and not subject to any foreign power are entitled to be citizens, without regard to race, color, or previous condition of slavery or involuntary servitude. The legislation also said that any citizen has the same right as a white citizen to make and enforce contracts, sue and be sued, give evidence in court, and inherit, purchase, lease, sell, hold, and convey real and personal property. This was an exciting and radical change as well as a victory for black civil rights. Between 1865 and 1870, civil rights for blacks had received a helping hand with three important amendments to the U.S. Constitution. The 13th Amendment was ratified on December 6, 1865 and abolished slavery and involuntary servitude, except as punishment for a crime. The 14th Amendment was ratified on July 9, 1868 and basically was a safeguard to the Civil Rights Act of 1866. The 15th Amendment was ratified on February 3, 1870 which prohibits the denial of suffrage based on race, color, or previous condition of servitude (Bowles, 2011). Congress also passed the Ku Klux Klan Act of 1871, which outlawed racial terrorism, and the Civil Rights Act of 1875, which prohibited racial discrimination in most public places. Radical Republicans also tried to use the Freedmen’s Bureau to redistribute confiscated southern plantation lands to blacks in order to put them on more equal footing with white farmers. In addition to these measures, Congress sent federal troops into the South to help blacks register to vote (Williams, 2009). Despite all the positive civil rights legislation, opposition from President Andrew Johnson, a conservative Supreme Court, and the white southern elite blocked Radical Republicans’ attempts at protecting blacks’ rights. Examples of this included President Johnson disbanded the Freedmen’s Bureau and the Supreme Court declaring the Civil Rights Act of 1875 unconstitutional. The biggest setback of blacks’ rights came with the Compromise of 1877. The Republicans traded the presidency, which was the election of Rutherford B. Hayes, for the early withdrawal of federal troops from the South. This compromise ended Reconstruction and set back the hope of equality for southern blacks for decades. Within a few short years, the powerful white elite had returned to power in southern legislatures and had reinstated its racist policies in the South (Bowles, 2011). This would force the southern blacks into a second class citizenship and subject them to a life of sharecropping and new laws referred to as the Jim Crow Laws. The Jim Crow Laws were state and local laws in the United States enacted from 1876 to 1968; which mandated racial segregation in public facilities with a supposedly separate and equal status for African Americans. These laws undermined the status of blacks by placing unfair restrictions on everything; with voting rights to segregation of water fountains. Blacks also had to struggle with their right to use the same restrooms, eat at the same establishments or attend the same schools as white people (Bowles, 2011). In addition, local statutes called black codes kept blacks “in their place.” These codes made offenses such as loitering, unemployment, indebtedness, voting, and even having sex with white women illegal for blacks. State authorities fined and arrested blacks who disobeyed these laws, basically the codes made racism legal. Despite the challenges facing the black population, there were some who pushed to change the status quo. In 1881, former slave Booker T. Washington founded the Tuskegee Institute which was a technical college in Alabama for blacks. Washington quickly became one of the first black activists as he called for blacks to achieve economic equality with whites rather than “accommodation.” Washington argued that social equality and political rights would come only if blacks became self-reliant and improved their financial footing. Once that is achieved respect from the white community would follow. Washington also helped push for an end to segregation and supported organizations working towards securing political rights for more blacks (Jim Crow, 2009). There were other black leaders who disagreed with Washington’s policy of accommodation because it would keep blacks in an eternity of poverty and second-class citizenship. One such leader was W.E.B. Du Bois who called for blacks to seek complete social and economic equality. Du Bois also worked to develop a “black consciousness,” promoting black history, religious heritage, art, music, and culture. In 1896, the Supreme Court faced another civil rights issue in the case of Plessy v. Ferguson. Louisiana enacted a law that required separate railway cars for blacks and whites. In 1892, Homer Plessy, who was seven-eighths white, took a seat in a "whites only" car of a Louisiana train. He refused to move to the car reserved for blacks and was arrested. This civil rights case was taken to the highest court and in a 7 to 1 vote, a decision was made declaring that segregated public and private facilities for blacks and whites were “separate but equal,” justifying Jim Crow segregation laws. The Court also upheld the right of southern legislatures to levy poll taxes and give literacy tests to determine the voting eligibility of blacks (Plessy, 1896). These decisions effectively legalized and spread racism throughout the North and South. In 1909, several civil rights activists including W.E.B. Du Bois, established the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP). The NAACP, whose leadership and membership consisted of both blacks and whites developed a mission “to ensure the political, educational, social, and economic equality of rights of all persons and to eliminate racial hatred and racial discrimination.” Its name, retained in accordance with tradition, uses the once common term “colored people.” The NAACP concentrated on using the courts to overturn Jim Crow statutes that legalized racial segregation. Their actions played a significant role in successful civil rights cases such as Buchanan v. Warley (1917), Guinn v. United States (1915), Moore v. Dempsey (1923) and succeeded in organizing a nationwide protest of the silent movie Birth of a Nation, a movie that glamorizes the Klu Klux Klan (Blakely, 1999). Although the NAACP is an organization for all black people, black women formed their own associations geared toward providing social services and community support. One of the most prominent of these associations is the National Association of Colored Women’s Clubs which worked to improve the lives of urban black women by building settlement houses, promoting public health initiatives, and providing child-care services for working mothers. The Great Migration The prospect of new jobs in the war industries encouraged as many as half a million black tenant farmers in the South to move to cities in the North during and after World War I. The Great Migration, as it came to be called, had a profound effect on blacks’ lives and on the cities in which they resettled, as millions of white Americans began leaving for the suburbs. Furthermore, the invention of the mechanical cotton picker in the 1940s made southern agricultural jobs scarcer and spurred more than a million additional blacks to leave the South. As more and more blacks moved to northern cities, more people became aware of the enormous economic inequalities that separated blacks from whites. The Harlem Renaissance Nowhere were the effects of the Great Migration clearer than in the Harlem neighborhood of New York City, where as many as 200,000 blacks settled between World War I and World War II. Harlem quickly became one of the largest black communities in the world outside Africa. Although most of the blacks who moved to Harlem lived in poverty, a sizable group of middle-class blacks helped lead the so-called Harlem Renaissance of the 1920s. During this Harlem Renaissance, W. E. B. Du Bois’s “black consciousness” took root among black artists and intellectuals, who began to recognize, develop, and appreciate a distinctive black cultural identity. Black writers such as Zora Neale Hurston, Claude McKay, Countee Cullen, and Langston Hughes expressed their immense pride in the creation of the “New Negro.” As black essayist James Weldon Johnson put it, “Nothing can go further to destroy race prejudice than the recognition of the Negro as a creator and contributor to American civilization.” Marcus Garvey and the UNIA No single individual contributed more to the development of black pride during this period than Marcus Garvey. Garvey, who founded the Universal Negro Improvement Association (UNIA) in Jamaica in 1914, moved to the United States in 1916. He settled in Harlem and established the U.S. branch of the UNIA to help blacks achieve economic independence in the United States and unite black communities around the world. He organized parades and massive rallies to boost black pride and encouraged black-owned companies to do more business within the community. On the other hand, the UNIA also encouraged blacks to leave the United States and resettle in their ancestral homes in Africa. Even though most of Garvey’s business ventures failed and the U.S. government deported him for mail fraud in 1927, his contribution to the development of black consciousness empowered the “New Negro” and helped lay the foundation for the civil rights movement in the 1950s and 1960s. World War II The majority of the more than 1 million blacks who joined the Allied forces during World War II served in segregated, noncombat service and maintenance units, just as they had in World War I. There were exceptions, however, perhaps the most notable of which was the elite all-black Tuskegee Airmen bomber unit. Segregated or not, black Americans made significant gains during the war. Civil rights leaders, for example, pushed their “Double V” campaign for both victory abroad and victory at home. NAACP membership soared during the war years to more than half a million people. The newly formed Congress of Racial Equality (CORE) launched peaceful protests in order to gain sympathy for the movement from white Americans. National Negro Congress President A. Philip Randolph even threatened President Franklin D. Roosevelt with a massive march on Washington, D.C., if the federal government failed to pass more civil rights legislation. Roosevelt and Civil Rights Hoping to avoid civil unrest, Roosevelt compromised with Randolph by signing Executive Order 8802 , which outlawed racial discrimination in the federal government and in war factories. Roosevelt also established the Fair Employment Practices Committee to execute the order. As a result, more than 200,000 Northern blacks found work in defense-related industries during the war. Roosevelt’s election victories during the Great Depression and World War II happened, in part, because a majority of black Americans began voting for Democrats rather than Republicans. Continued support from the Democratic Party proved to be vital in securing the passage of civil rights legislation in the 1960s. Truman and Civil Rights After the war, in 1946, President Harry S Truman established the President’s Committee on Civil Rights. The committee pushed for antilynching laws in the South and tried to register more black voters. Although symbolically powerful, the committee had little practical influence. More significant was Truman’s desegregation of the armed forces with Executive Order 9981 in 1948. Truman’s support for civil rights angered many southerners within the Democratic Party, though, and many left the nominating convention in 1948 to back their own presidential candidate, segregationist Strom Thurmond of South Carolina. Notable Firsts Two major color barriers were broken shortly after the war’s end. The first was in 1947, when Jackie Robinson became the first black professional baseball player in the major leagues. Robinson’s contract with the Brooklyn Dodgers opened professional sports to black players and helped integrate blacks into white American culture. The second occurred in 1950, when United Nations diplomat Ralph Bunche became the first black man to win the prestigious Nobel Peace Prize for his work in reducing Arab-Israeli tensions. Although President Truman offered Bunche a promotion to the position of undersecretary of state, Bunche declined the offer after learning that he and his family would still have to live in the segregated black quarter of Washington, D.C. During the mid-1950’s through the late 1960’s blacks started to respond to unfair treatment shown by the white Americans, they responded to the segregation of blacks and whites during that time and double standards the African Americans were held by. Blacks responded by joining in boycotts, marches and sit-ins, as they tried to get as many legislations to pass so they become equal. They were very successful in most of their actions which brought more rights for them. The tremendous Civil Rights movement of the 1950s, 60s and early 70s shook America to its very foundations. It was a movement that in one way or another touched every black family in the US. Internationally throughout Africa, the Caribbean and even Europe as blacks were imbued with a new confidence. Then there was great hope from impassioned speeches of leaders like Martin Luther King and Malcolm X, as blacks formed their own institutions where African Americans were able to go to school and become educated so they can be marketable for better jobs. During WWII, over 3 million blacks registered for the Army, over 500,000 fought and many died "To defend democracy" in racially segregated units. The Buffalo Soldiers also explored and made their mark in large areas of the southwest and thousands of miles of telegraph lines. Without the protection of the 9th and 10th Cavalries, crews of the buffalo soldiers built the expanding railroads at the mercy hostile Indians and outlaws. Despite extreme prejudices and the worst assignments, the buffalo soldiers did their duties to the best of their abilities. Theodore Roosevelt extended great praise of the African American soldiers at their widespread heroism displayed during their roles in the war; and awarded six of them with the Congressional Medal of Honor. While there were many significant and successful events in between, the 1950’s were a movement in civil rights that holds significant substance in African American history, there were often struggles through the courts by blacks to end segregation. There were little effects before 1954 when the Supreme Court ruled that segregation in schools was illegal. As things began to change in 1955, a 14 year old black boy from Chicago who was visiting family in Mississippi was lynched. He was lynched for sweet-talking a white woman, which was a not acceptable in the south. He was then beaten, shot through the head and his body mutilated. The FBI was sent to investigate, and a mock trial was held by an all white jury, the lynchers were found not guilty. The verdict caused Blacks every where, from the North to the South to join in a demonstration to show support for the injustices that blacks suffered. As the tide began to turn, a mass movement began to evolve. In Montgomery, Alabama, action began. Rosa Parks, an activist in the National Association for the Advance of Black people made her stand. She sat in front of the bus, knowing that only whites were able to do so. She refused to give up her seat; was arrested and fined $10.00. Spending most of her life fighting for voting rights and segregation, Mrs. Parks was also active in the Civil Rights movement that shaped the social code for African-Americans in the United States. She always found a way to stay involved in the community and have a way to voice her thoughts and concerns about inequalities in society. Well known for saying, “Do what is right.” Rosa Parks was one of many activists fighting for fair and equality rights. She along with E.D. Nixon a black trade union organizer decided it was time to fight back, so they organized a one-day boycott of the buses. The black community rallied behind the boycott which spiraled from one day to almost one year and the demands got bolder with blacks demanding segregation on buses. Because of Rosa Park's dedication to the cause of the Civil Rights Movement; after her death, the House of Representatives and the United States Senate approved resolution to allow the viewing of her body in the U.S. Capitol Rotunda. She was the first woman and the second black person ever to have the honor of lying in state in the Nations’ capitol. President George W. Bush ordered a statute of Mrs. Parks placed in the National Statuary Hall in Washington, D.C. Upon signing the resolution. President Bush stated, “By placing her work for a more perfect union, and we commit ourselves to continue to struggle for justice for every American.” During the height of racial segregation, Martin Luther King dedicated his life to bringing attention to social injustice in a powerful and non-violent manner. His words still hold truth and his insights are timeless as they were over forty years ago. Starting with the Montgomery Bus Boycott in 1955, he began his journey as a civil rights activist. Dr. King founded the Southern Christian Leadership Conference a few years later and by 1963 delivered his famous “I Have a Dream” speech to the world. He was dedicated in his journey to end racial segregation through non-violent acts; he focused his energy in his later years to ending poverty and protesting the Vietnam War. Dr. King felt, “that in order for the civil rights movement to be successful, we must forever conduct our struggle on the high plane of dignity and discipline." Dr. King led many inspirational and successful peace marches and delivered the world famous “I Have a Dream” speech (Civil Rights 2007).” Dr. King once said, “If a man hasn't discovered something that he will die for, he isn't fit to live (library.duke.edu). This statement clearly reflects Dr. King's true reflection to his beliefs that all Americans should have equal rights, even if it meant a man had to die for those beliefs. There have been decades of life changes, discoveries, events and a successful journey for some, and continuing struggles for others. Fortunately, we can learn from the past events and work together to improve the American dream of a safer and better place to live for all nationalities by offering equal and fair opportunities to everyone The emergence of the Black Power Movement, led by Malcolm X, which lasted roughly from 1966 to 1975, also enlarged the aims of the Civil Rights Movement to include racial dignity, economic and political self-sufficiency, and freedom from oppression by white Americans. Many African Americans felt as if they should be treated equally even though there skin color was different. Malcolm X also fought for changes in equality, only in a more violent way than Dr. King. Malcolm X wanted changes for blacks because his father and uncle were killed by blacks. Many civil rights leaders were are arrested and thrown in jail during protests. In conclusion, many African Americans worked to end segregation and many of them worked to end discrimination also. Because of the Civil Rights Movement and the leaders who set the stage for change, blacks have advanced through the years to receive the same rights as white Americans. They are now business owners, home owners, presidents over large firms, and political leaders. They struggled to get where they are today but it was worth the struggled for all the African Americans in the world today. Dr. King, Malcolm X, Medgar Evers and many others did not lose their lives in vain; they left a legacy for African-Americans to continue and to improve. References Becker, E. (1999). Chronology on the History of Slavery and Racism. Retrieved from: http://innercity.org/holt/slavechron.html. Blakely, G. (1999, Dec 15). The 20th century in CP time: 1900-1949 -- we are a people. Sentinel. Retrieved from: http://search.proquest.com/docview/369321112'accountid=32521. Bowles, M. (2011). American History: 1865-Present. End of Isolation. Bridgepointe Education, Inc. San Diego, CA. 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