American research

下面为大家整理一篇优秀的assignment代写范文- American research，供大家参考学习，这篇论文讨论了美国的科研。自从20世纪90年代以来，经济全球化明显地加快了美国经济结构调整的步伐并降低了这种调整的成本，而这种以高科技为中心的结构调整正是美国经济90年代以来蓬勃增长的坚实基础，使美国抢占了世界知识上游产业的有利地位。美国充分利用战后基础研究的优势在经济全球化中获得了巨大的收益，使其重新夺回在世界市场竞争中的主动权。

From an objective perspective, the development of American university scientific research is carried out under the joint action of its internal operation rules and external operation environment. The two value conflicts of impart truth and discover truth, discover truth and apply truth run through the development of American university scientific research. It is not only influenced by American culture, but also restricted by social system and economic reality. American pragmatism and the duty of free exploration of truth under the principle of American university autonomy interact with each other to promote the benign development of American university scientific research. This is not to say that the us government has been completely hands-off in its pursuit of university research. On the contrary, it has always acted in the best interests of The Times to promote the development of university research in the us. From this point of view, the emergence of American "knowledge economy" is inevitable.

The morel act provided extremely favorable conditions for the development of the American economy, which enabled the United States to heal the wounds of the war in a very short time after the civil war and enter the period of rapid economic growth. The rapid development of American agriculture and has greatly stimulated the development of the industry, from 1860 to 1860, the United States processing industrial output has increased by almost seven times, industrial output has increased by nearly four times, in 1860 America's fourth highest gross industrial output value in the world, by 1894 the United States has built a relatively complete modern industrial system, the gross value of industrial output has ranked the first place, by a poor and backward agricultural country quickly catch up with and surpass all established European capitalist powers.

But the morell act was a thoroughly pragmatic and technical act. Land grant colleges and new-type universities emphasize professionalism and practicality, and emphasize the anti-rationalism proposition of "learning by use", which to some extent lowers academic standards and insults the title of "university".

The cult of the German university was almost a common feature of many mid-19th century higher education reformers. Some reformers emphasized that the model of German universities should be taken as a reference to transform or establish real universities in the United States. They advocated that universities should not only disseminate knowledge, but also create knowledge. Teachers should not only be able to teach new knowledge in the classroom, but also participate in international exchanges with their creative academic research. As a result, a large number of new teachers were absorbed into universities, and the cramming teaching method was replaced by the German teaching and discussion method.

The founding of Johns Hopkins university in 1876 marks the beginning of modern formal universities in the United States and is of great significance in the history of American higher education. Hopkins aims to create a German - style American university. In addition to the undergraduate department, the graduate program was added to establish the doctoral degree. They were no longer as dependent on church support and funding as other schools were at the time. It emphasizes academic research, the combination of teaching and scientific research, the development of science through research, and the establishment of a research university.

Although American universities adopt the non-academic personnel board management system, the American higher education management system has certain autonomy and flexibility. However, with the increasing investment of state government in education, legislators and taxpayers put forward higher requirements on the "sense of responsibility" of colleges and universities in using education funds. The American public requires higher education to take service as its purpose. This makes another group of reformers regard "function" as the core of higher education and demand that American higher education should be secular, professional and academic. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the Wisconsin idea of "delivering knowledge to the masses", "serving the state", and "academic freedom" was born. Although the "Wisconsin idea" inherited academic freedom from the German universities of the early nineteenth century, it was the proposition that universities must engage in all types of academic research, whether or not the actual value of such research was immediately apparent. In theory, the Wisconsin idea was born out of the fact that it partly inherited the continental university model and made service the third biggest task for American universities after teaching and research. But the Wisconsin idea in practice showed obvious characteristics of pragmatism, university of close relationship with the government, make the institutions of higher learning is easy to lose the characteristics of knowledge discovery, academic freedom also varying degrees of damage, and makes the university actually carry the burden of too much of academic research, to develop the function of research new knowledge.

At the turn of the 19th century and the 20th century, the capitalist world turned from free competition to monopoly. This period was the gilded age of rapid industrialization in the United States. By 1894, the United States had the world's largest industrial output. Rapid industrialization required a new kind of education, more extensive than the narrow technical education of the time. People of insight realize that the progress of technology depends on the progress of science, and the teaching that combines basic subjects with applied subjects is more conducive to cultivating creative and practical talents needed by the emerging industrial economy.

It is true that the teaching and research of American higher education, influenced by the structure of public institutions and the dispersion of funds within the American higher education system, is more closely adapted to commercial employment opportunities than many European higher education systems. In 1906, the department of electrical engineering at the Massachusetts institute of technology established an advisory board of large corporations. The department's electrical engineering research division, established in 1913, received regular contributions from other corporations. From 1880 to 1930s, he actively engaged in the teaching and scientific research of chemical engineering, and worked closely with American chemical and oil companies, playing an important role in the development of American chemical engineering. But overall, American universities, from the civil war to the 1940s, did not pay enough attention to research, especially pure research. In terms of the relationship between teaching and research, an influential view holds that the facilities and power to impart truth are more important than the facilities and power to discover truth in the temple of education. In addition, the university's emphasis on technology than to the attention of the science: one is in the United States in the middle of the nineteenth century with large tend to agriculture, mechanical and other disciplines and curriculum content of land-grant colleges and universities bamboo shoots grow, and many people began to love and worship practical the magic power of science and technology, practical and technology become the dominant and the mainstream concept of university. Second, the relationship between science and technology is not very close. For a long time, the development of science and technology in the United States has followed almost two separate paths. Basic scientific research relies on and lags behind that of Europe. Technological innovation is mostly carried out by enterprise technicians and individual inventors in their own laboratories. The level of technological innovation in the United States is far higher than that of basic scientific research. In addition, although the teaching and research of state universities such as the university of Michigan and the university of Wisconsin were focused on the needs of the business community from the very beginning, and their practical tendency was much greater than that of the early universities, the research funds provided by the American business community to the universities were still very small for quite a long time. The alliance between universities and industrial research did not change much until the first 40 years of the 20th century.

The great depression of the 1930s and the world war of the 1940s made americans realize the importance of scientific and technological progress. The achievement of the federal government's ambitious wartime research and development program in the 1940s, especially the successful completion of the Manhattan project, created a synthesis of research and weapons production, ushering in the era of true "big science." The Manhattan project's achievement in creating weapons of unprecedented destruction contributed to postwar optimism that broad scientific research was not only a fountain of economic growth, but also of potential value for social welfare.

For a long time, the American education, industry and military pragmatism dominated, attaches great importance to the application technology research, economic, military pay attention to introducing scientific achievements applied in Europe, the technology and military power in the United States climbing to rely on each other very deep, industrial and military have no patience and vision to support the "pure" scientific research, is not due to the development of basic science theory, and the second world war is almost run out of the country's basic research scientists.

In 1944, with the allied victory in sight, Roosevelt asked the moderator of the national bureau of research and development, vannevar bush, for advice on postwar research policies. The think-tank, with the help of other technologists, laid out the principle that research must rise after the war and take centre stage in national affairs. The government must take up the dual task of developing scientific research and fostering scientific talent. The priority should be given to basic scientific research to break the previous dependence on Europe. He believes that unless funding for basic research is increased, American innovation, economic development and the development of new weapons will come to a halt. Scientific research should respect the interests of scholars and ensure "academic democracy, research freedom and international exchange". A national science foundation shall be established to coordinate and administer national scientific research.

The United States government has adopted much of this advice as part of its national science policy. In this context, there are three new trends in higher education:

The status of scientific research in universities has been greatly enhanced. Increased federal funding for university research and support for universities' access to the material equipment and facilities necessary for high-quality research. In the 1960s and 1970s, during the cold war between the United States and the Soviet union, American support for university scientific research reached its peak. Make universities, especially research-intensive ones, centers of scientific research worldwide. The whole society has realized that homosexual research is conducted in accordance with the internal logic of university development. Without scientific research in universities, teaching will become a tree without roots and water without source, and the quality of teaching will not be improved. Therefore, university teachers are able to conduct scientific research with integrity and make efforts to explore cutting-edge science.

The deep-rooted tradition of academic excellence in American universities has been reversed. This was another development in American higher education after the war. In the past, American universities ignored basic theories and basic knowledge and blindly taught applied scientific knowledge and employment skills. As a result, students tended to be professional and professional, so their vision was narrow and their academic level was low and they could not keep up with the pace of scientific and technological development. But after the second world war, as cutting-edge science was valued, the long-term view of education, especially the role of higher education, was accepted: the reuse of higher education rather than the emphasis on learning was to abandon the essentials.

Federal funding for university research has increased dramatically, especially as the state's antitrust policies have been so harsh that university research has been separated from industrial research.

In the late 1970s, faced with the economic competitive advantages and trade advantages of Europe and Japan, the United States began to review its industrial research policies and rethink its national science and technology policies, in an attempt to change the separation of university research and industrial research. Since the early 1980s, the significant federal funding for basic scientific research in higher education has been supplemented by increased funding from industry, and the link between university research and industry research has once again attracted considerable comment.

Since the 1990s, economic globalization has obviously accelerated the pace and reduced the cost of the American economic restructuring, and this high-tech centered restructuring is the solid foundation for the booming growth of the American economy since the 1990s, enabling the United States to seize the advantageous position of the world's knowledge upstream industry. The United States made full use of the advantages of post-war basic research in the economic globalization has obtained huge benefits, so that it regain the initiative in the world market competition.

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