Aggressive behaviour and criminality--论文代写范文

早期研究性暴力犯罪的基本成分,已经创建了许多理论来确定如何导致暴力行为。在这篇paper代写范文中，斯和佩里描述了侵略的类型有:身体攻击、言语攻击,愤怒和敌意。

Abstract
  Violence and crime which is often addressed as the product of aggression [57-59]. However, Anderson and Bushman [59] claimed that although violence is described as aggression, in many instances it is not considered to be violent. Aggression is described as an overt behaviour carried out intentionally to harm another person who is motivated to avoid the harm [60]. A variety of mechanisms linking aggression and violent behaviour have been proposed. The available evidence indicates that aggression has been of long-standing interest among social scientists especially in violence related studies [61]. Aggression is often assessed in relation to behavioural and conducts problems [62]. 

  A study by Warren et al. [63] established a significant relationship between aggression and antisocial behaviour, which may lead a person’s involvement in violent activities, including murder. Early research on aggression highlighted aggression as the basic ingredient of violent crime [57]. Since then, many theories have been created to determine how it contributes to violent behaviour. According to Buss [64], aggression is characterised as the outcome of the links between emotions (anger), thoughts (hostility), and aggressive behaviour. 

  One of the models that have been used in criminological studies is the Four Structure Aggression Model (AM) by Buss and Perry [65]. Buss and Perry’s [65] AM describes four dispositional sub-traits of aggression. The types of aggression are: physical aggression, verbal aggression, anger and hostility [65]. The strong theoretical foundation of these four types of aggression as a global conceptualization of aggression is well evidenced in many violence related literatures [64-67]. According to the AM [65], both physical and verbal aggression reflects the instrumental or motor component of aggression, usually conceived as premeditated means of obtaining some goals and to harm the victim. 

  The facet of physical aggression consists of kicking, beating, and hurting [68]. Examples of verbal aggression include shouting, threatening, and insulting others [68]. The second component of AM is cognitive [65]. Hostility reflects the cognitive component of aggression which involves negative feelings such as feelings of ill will, opposition and injustice directed towards others. Hostility is a cognitive reaction of perceived threat or insult which differentiates it from instrumental aggression. The third component of aggression is emotional [65]. This emotional component reflects anger. According to AM [65], this emotional component of aggression is usually conceived as impulsive, thoughtless and driven by anger. This emotional component of aggression said to be the result of perceived provocation which motivates to harm the target. In AM, anger often acts as a psychological bridge which connects both instrumental and cognitive components [65].

 Aggressive behaviour as negative outcomes 
  Aggressive behaviour seems to be the outcome of the frustration due to hindrances in goal attainment [69]. In the neurobiological perspective, aggression has been linked with high levels of testosterone and low levels of certain neurotransmitters such as serotonin [70]. Aggression has also been linked to genetics [71-72] and social learning [73-74]. Other predisposing factors for aggression include genetic factors, the fetal environment, obstetric complications, the rearing environment, biologic factors, and psychiatric disorders such as substance abuse, psychosis, depression, and personality disorders [75]. Ferguson et al. [76] evidenced that personality factors are more critical than environmental factors in developing aggressive traits in an individual. However, it was argued that there is no single factor credible enough to determine the root of aggression [77]. The current consensus is that aggression is multidetermined [78]. Earlier research had highlighted aggression as the basic ingredient of violent crime [57]. The findings from the accumulated literatures [58- 59,79-80] indicate that aggression leads to violence. Anderson and Bushman [59] claimed violence as aggression; has the goal of extreme harm, including death.(paper代写)

 Types of aggression 
  In social psychological terms, aggression can be defined as psychological phenomenon which describes a broad category of behaviour which intends to harm another by means of physical or verbal attacks [81]. Other than Buss and Perry’s [65] AM, there are many different types of aggression that could manifest in an individual. Fesbach [57] proposed another two types of aggression, known as instrumental aggression and expressive aggression. The types are distinguished by their goals or the rewards that they offer the perpetrator. Instrumental aggression is conceived as a premeditated means of obtaining some goal other than harming the victim, and being proactive rather than reactive [79,82]. 

  This instrumental type of aggression comes from the desire for objects or the status possessed by another person, such as jewellery, money or territory [57]. The expressive aggression is a reflection of hostile reactions [57]. Hostile aggression has historically been conceived as being impulsive, thoughtless (e.g., unplanned), driven by anger, having the ultimate motive of harming the target, and occurring as a reaction to some perceived provocation. It is sometimes called affective, impulsive, or reactive aggression [59]. Fesbach [57] determined that most murders, rapes, and other violent crimes are directed at harming the victims are precipitated by hostile aggression and anger.(paper代写)

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