Factors of criminality and Behaviour--论文代写范文精选

不过值得注意的是,对于预测犯罪行为，个性特征似乎是非常有用的,在他们的环境中，做出决策和沟通。为了调查罪犯的人格特征,心理学家和犯罪学家使用大量的模型和概念来解释人格和犯罪之间的联系。下面的paper代写范文进一步详述。

Introduction
  According to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders [5] of the American Psychiatric Association (APA), personality traits are defined as the enduring patterns of perceiving, relating to, and thinking about the environment and oneself that are exhibited in a wide range of social and personal contexts. From the view of psychologists, personality is referred to as a person’s unique long term pattern of thinking, emotions, and behaviour [6-7]. While personality reflects the unique characteristics of an individual, traits are defined as “dimensions of individual differences in tendencies to show consistent patterns of thoughts, feelings and actions” [8]. 

  It is theorised that certain personality traits are linked with criminality and malevolent behaviour. It is also worth noting that, personality profiles seem to be very useful in predicting the criminal behaviour and provide a better understanding of how an individual reacts to problems, make decisions and communicate with their surroundings [9]. In order to investigate personality traits of criminals, psychologists and criminologists use a large number of models and concepts to explain the association between personality and criminality.

 Big Five and criminal behaviour 
  Within the criminological literatures, studies have shown that certain traits are highly associated with a wide range of criminal behaviours. For example, Wiebe [18] noted that among the “Big Five” components of trait personality, agreeableness and conscientiousness have been found to be predictive of adult criminal behaviour. Earlier, John et al. [15] found that delinquents aged 12-13 years old who had engaged in burglary, drug dealing, and strong arming behaviour scored lower on Agreeableness, Conscientiousness, and Openness and obtained higher scores on Extraversion than nondelinquents. 

  Heaven [16] found neuroticism in addition to agreeableness and conscientiousness to be predictive of delinquent behaviour. Furthermore, Heaven [16] reported Neuroticism to be positively, and Conscientiousness and Agreeableness to be negatively related to self-reported vandalism. The antisocial undercontrollers which has been described as the most delinquent subtype, was characterised by extremely low scores on Agreeableness and Conscientiousness, and moderate scores on Extraversion, Openness, and neuroticism compared to non-delinquent adolescents [19]. 

  In studies of gender comparisons, some authors [20-23] have reported that physical aggression in men and women is found to be associated with low agreeableness, low conscientiousness and high neuroticism. Studies in partner violence by Heaven [16] provided some evidence of a correlation between low agreeableness with partner violence for men and women. Partner violence perpetration for women is highly associated with personality type neuroticism (Ibid). In Malaysian studies among criminals, Mohammad Rahim et al. [24] noted significant associations between certain Alternative Five Factor Model personality traits with specific types of aggression.

  PEN factors and criminality Psychoticism, extraversion, and neuroticism are the three essential personality factors in Eynseck’s PEN Model [13]. Eynseck’s PEN model is one of the few theories that explicitly relate personality traits to criminality [25]. Daderman [17] found that delinquents obtained higher scores in PEN dimensions compared to a non-delinquents control group.

  While high neuroticism scores reflect emotional instability, impulsive, and antisocial behaviour [13], psychoticism is usually defined by lack of empathy, cruelty, hostility, psychopathy, aggressiveness, and socialization deficit [13]. Criminological literatures also indicated high scores on psychoticism and neuroticism were found to be associated with juvenile delinquency [26]. Several other studies [16,27] found juvenile delinquency to be positively related with psychoticism and extraversion instead of psychoticism and neuroticism. High scores on psychoticism and neuroticism and are also often found in adult offender samples [28]. 

  Furthermore, characteristics of psychoticism such as aggressive, hostile, low in empathy, and impulse are the common characteristics shared by criminals and delinquents. However, Blackburn [28] had convincingly stated that high psychoticism scores reflected more serious and persistent offenders. Individuals with high ImpSS scores are more likely to engage in criminal behaviours since they are used to risky and social unacceptable activities. This engagement in criminal behaviour stems from searching for high arousal and sensation seeking. Studies have found positive associations between sensation seeking and a wide range of imprudent and criminal behaviours such as smoking [29], alcohol and illicit drug abuse [30-32], and risky sexual behaviour [33]. In addition, ImpSS appears to be related to a wide range of troubles [34] such as childhood conduct problems [35], aggressive tendencies [36], and non-psychopathic murder [37].

 Self-control as the sole cause of crime 
  In addition to personality traits, self-control is considered as another important construct in determining the likelihood of an individual’s violent behaviour [38]. The growing body of psychological, sociological and criminological literatures [39-44] have evidenced low selfcontrol as a consistent and potential predictor of both criminal and deviant behaviour. In fact, poor self-control is perceived to be the primary cause of criminal and delinquent behaviour [39]. Other studies have linked low self-control to drunken driving [45], drinking, and truancy among college students [46]. (paper代写)

  Furthermore, low self-control have also been associated with self-reported juvenile delinquency [47] and bullying by juveniles [48]. One of the most widely cited theories on criminal behaviour is Gottfredson and Hirschi’s [39] theory of self-control [41,49]. A growing body of literature has empirically assessed the General Theory of Crime (GTC) and supports the claim that low self-control is significantly related to crime and other analogous or imprudent behaviors [41]. Therefore the role of self-control as important predictor of crime and criminal behaviour is well evidenced Gottfredson and Hirschi [39] proposed a theoretical argument that stresses the importance of self-control as the primary cause of crime. According to GTC, self-control is defined as “the tendency to avoid acts whose long term costs exceed their momentary advantages” [50]. It reflects the ability of an individual to refrain from short term gratification. In other words, individuals who lack self-control are less likely to consider the negative outcomes of their actions and are more readily to indulge in behaviours that produce short term pleasures. In addition, self-control is claimed to be the single “most important individual difference cause of crime and delinquency” [51].(paper代写)

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