Semiotic level, social constructs and the social actor--论文代写范文精选

新的人工智能的问题在于,它能够实现许多(低)的认知功能,如避障、受光的吸引,但更高的认知功能,如语言处理仍然十分落后。人类可以被认为有某种程度的物理行为。下面的paper代写范文进行详述。

Abstract
  Articial Intelligence (AI) has made progress in trying to understand its connection with the physical world and lately more specically with the social and cultural world. AI started with the classical cognitive approach that describes an actor based on symbol systems and states that this is a sufcient and necessary condition for intelligence (Newell & Simon, 1976; Newell, 1980). However, the approach focuses on the internal organisation of the actor (the cognitive system) and not (so much) on the inuence of the outside world on the functioning of the cognitive system. Later on, in the nineties, embodied cognition or situated cognition gained a lot of popularity and denes that the actor's bodily experiences are acquired through its interaction with its environment, which is also referred to as physical situatedness, or `New AI' (Suchman, 1987; Brooks, 1991b; Clark, 1999). 

  `New AI' argues that symbol representations are not always necessary to implement intelligent behaviour. Both approaches have delivered some wonderful applications we could never have dreamt of, but have a disadvantage: the problem of paying no attention to the social and cultural setting in which these applications function. The disadvantages of the classical approach is that the symbol is loosely connected to the outside world and therefore the symbol in the symbol system doesn't acquire its meaning from reality, referred to as the symbol grounding problem (Harnad, 1990). The problem with New AI is that it is able to implement many (lower) cognitive functions, e.g. obstacle avoidance, attraction by light, but that the higher cognitive functions such as language processing and selfreection are not possible without any representation (Vogt, 2002). 

  The situated actor and the semiotic level Human beings can be considered to have some degree of physical situatedness, but it has been argued that humans are also socially (and culturally) situated (Lindblom & Ziemke, 2003). Dautenhahn et al. (2002) suggest to broaden the concept of (physical) situatedness; it not only includes the physical environment but the social or cultural environment as well. Lindblom and Ziemke (2003) state that the Russian scholar Lev Vygotsky (1962, 1978) (together with Mead, one of the rst social constructivists) already pointed out the importance of social interactions for the development of individual intelligence during the 1920-1930s. 

  Vygotsky argued that individual intelligence emerges as a result of the biological factors in combination with interaction with a social environment through a developmental process. Hence, there is a need to connect the social, cultural and physical world with the `Innenwelt' of the actor. We suggest a separate level of description, the semiotic level that comprises both, the Umwelt and the Innenwelt of the actor and creates a social actor that is both embodied and situated, i.e. the semiotic level is a level of signs or constructs that connects the cognitive or individual level17 with the social level. As stated in chapter 1, the semiotic level describes the use of language and signs in communication and interaction in order to agree on social constructs (e.g. common plans, or contracts) (Gazendam, 2004; Helmhout et al., 2004; Helmhout, Gazendam, & Jorna, 2005a). We adopt theories of semiotics and more specically organisational semiotics in order to bridge the gap between the social level and the individual level. The social constructs at the semiotic levelexplained in the next sectioncan be represented as signs for supporting social interaction between actors, and also as representations at the individual or cognitive level in the form of symbols or chunks in a physical symbol system (Newell, 1980). 

  Figure 3.5 shows that the representation of social constructs is present at the different levels of description. At the social level, social constructs are stored in organisations or institutions as (social) artefacts, at the semiotic level, social constructs are represented as signs and at the individual level, social constructs are represented in the form of chunks that are stored in a physical symbol system. As mentioned before, semiotics is present at all three levels. Therefore, we have drawn the curved boundaries between the levels. The semiotic level its function is to mediate between those levels (with help of its signication system and sign production) and allows the sharing of social constructs between the social and individual level. The discussion about the cognitive agent and the physical symbol system will be elaborated in the next chapter. In the remaining part of this chapter we want to focus on the semiotic level and social constructs, and why they are required for an actor to behave socially.

  Social constructs As mentioned before, social constructivism states that a social construct can be seen as an invention or artefact constructed by interaction between members of a social group or interaction between groups. The aim of social constructs, as proposed in this chapter, is to bridge the gap between the social level and the individual level of the actor and nds its origin in organisational semioticsthe Stamper schoolthat suggests the combination of affordances and signs to bridge this gap (Stamper, 1973, 2001). Affordances stress the interaction between a human agent and its environment based on behaviour patterns that have evolved over time in a community. Signs stress the social construction of knowledge expressed in sign structures. . . Stamper sees affordances as repertoires of behaviours and distinguishes physical affordances and social affordances. 

  A (physical) affordance is a set of properties of the environment that makes possible or inhibits activity (Gibson, 1979). After many encounters with the environment, this can result in a habit of action, which is a commitment to act with a connected action program that governs the actual acting (Peirce, 1931; Gazendam, 2001, p. 40). From a semiotic point of view, one could say that a physical affordance becomes a social affordance18 as well, the moment the physical affordance is shared between actors in a community (e.g. a trafc light). The experience of the object (shared with others) is built up in the mind of the actor; the actor is socially situated through interaction and perception (e.g. of the trafc light), which is a process of social construction of signs in the actor's mind. 

  The resulting signs are organised as units of knowledge consisting of a semi-indexical19 representation of an affordance and its associated habit of action. Social constructs are social affordances (Liu, 2000; Stamper, 1973, 2001) and can be seen as representations of cooperation and coordination, based on intertwined habits and mutual commitments that are often expressed in sign structures such as agreements, contracts and plans. A social construct (Gazendam, 2003; Liu, 2000) is a relatively persistent socially shared unit of knowledge, reinforced in its existence, by its frequent use. In organisations, social constructs take the form of, for instance shared stories, shared institutions (behaviour rule systems), shared designs, shared plans, and shared artefacts. These social constructs support habits of action aimed at cooperation and coordinated behaviour.

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